For our schedule and links to other discussions, see the Money and Banking 2024 master post.
This is the discussion thread for Economics of Money and Banking Lecture 1: The Four Prices of Money.

• Lecture Videos
• Lecture Notes

This lecture provides context for the course and introduces us to Perry Mehrling's "Money View" framework. We practice using the balance sheet (T-account) as an analytical tool to help us understand the machinery of money, banking, and finance.
NOTE: The videos in this lecture have been arranged out of chronological order, so Mehrling sometimes refers back to something he hasn't talked about yet.

Part 1: The Big Picture

This course represents a challenge to Fischer Black's assertion we don't need a theory of money separate from the theory of finance. Black abstracts away from liquidity by assuming that perfect liquidity is free and happens automatically. By contrast, Mehrling insists that central banks have a role in managing the liquidity problems that financial markets naturally encounter.
Grounded in permanent, uncontroversial features of money, the Money View framework provides an ideologically neutral language and toolkit for discussing and analyzing money. Globalization, technology, and the forces of politics continually reshape the monetary landscape. But the underlying nature of money and banking remains constant.
We start with the question of financial globalization. In the decade-plus since he delivered these lectures, Mehrling has further integrated the international monetary system into his Money View. His 2022 book, Money and Empire: Charles P. Kindleberger and the Dollar System tells the story of how the US dollar found itself at the center of that system.
Global money has its own terminology. In particular, the term capital flow describes any cross-border flow of money not associated with the purchase or sale of goods and services. Whenever they happen to cross national borders, lending, borrowing, and the purchase and sale of financial assets, all represent capital flows. When I borrow abroad or sell financial assets, money flows toward me. That's a capital inflow. When I lend abroad or buy financial assets, that's a capital outflow.
In the lecture, Mehrling shares a list of his intellectual predecessors in the American and UK Banking traditions. Notably, he leaves off John Hicks, whose ideas, especially from his 1989 book "A Market Theory of Money," are central to the intellectual development of the Money View. We will discuss a few chapters from that book in the coming weeks.

Part 2: Prerequisites?

This course doesn't use much math. And you don't need an economics background to get something out of the material. If you're familiar with other ways of thinking about money and banking (and finance), these lectures will eventually connect up with those perspectives.
Instead of using conventional approaches for teaching Money and Banking by first applying theory, Mehrling builds out his Money View framework from an examination of banking practice. What model of the world do bankers need to have in their heads in order to stay in business?

Part 3: What is a Bank, a Shadow Bank, A Central Bank?

Here is the stylized balance sheet of a prototypical bank.
https://preview.redd.it/gt7d8qk8651d1.png?width=281&format=png&auto=webp&s=deadb0e839c3fe7d8617d8216071a21e64ffc1a1
Assets are always on the left side of the balance sheet, and liabilities are always on the right. The difference in value between assets and liabilities is net worth. Unlike other entries on the liability side of the balance sheet, net worth doesn't represent a commitment to pay a specific amount of money. Instead, we can think of net worth as an IOU to the bank owners for what's left over after all the bank's debts have been paid.
On the asset side of its balance sheet, the bank keeps a reserve of money available to settle immediate payment obligations. This reserve is monetary liquidity. As long as the bank has reserves it can spend down (0 < Reserves), it can meet its payment obligations. The bank is liquid. Without reserves, the bank would always have to receive money at the exact instant it needs to pay it out.
We will often use the terms money and cash to refer to the settlement instrument—that which can be spent directly to settle payment commitments. The settlement instrument will only ever appear on a balance sheet as an asset. The same instrument that serves as money for one entity may appear as a liability on the balance sheet of another entity, the issuer, but it is not money to the issuer. It is credit.
The term reserves refers to any reserve of money held as an asset. Above, I have emphasized the bank's reserves by italicizing and bolding the balance-sheet entry. I will follow the convention throughout the course of highlighting money as the settlement instrument.
Assets other than cash (money) represent promised or expected cash inflows. Liabilities represent commitments for future cash outflows. The balance-sheet structure alone does not describe the time pattern of these cash flows. Nor does it tell us about market liquidity, funding liquidity, or even the regulatory constraints on reserves. It is hard to see liquidity by looking at a balance sheet alone.
A balance sheet is solvent if its net worth—assets less liabilities—is greater than zero. However, there is no single correct way to determine the price of assets. Should we add up the total promised cash flows implied by the assets? Should we discount those cash flows based on how far into the future they occur? Should we weight them based on risk of default? When should we ignore all that and mark to market? That is, when does it make the most sense to value assets based on the price we could sell them for right now?
Solvency is often a matter of appearance, whereas liquidity imposes an actual constraint. If you can't make a payment, you're dead. Continued operation depends on liquidity, not solvency.
Let's look at two side-by-side balance sheets to see what happens when someone deposits cash in a bank.
https://preview.redd.it/nzakihfc651d1.png?width=780&format=png&auto=webp&s=430587d285c5bb0eeae1036e0b706bcc3455d353
On these balance sheets, "cash" refers to coins and notes—the physical currency you might keep in your wallet. For the depositor, both cash and bank deposits are money. For the bank, only the cash is money.
We can also show this transaction using payment arrows.
https://preview.redd.it/ybyopq6e651d1.png?width=338&format=png&auto=webp&s=c377ad6ccb9a8ec7c0bd897c4fd915dd220eafbd
Following Borja Clavero's color-coding convention, I've shaded the creation of deposits green to denote payment by issuance. I've shaded the transfer of cash yellow to denote payment by assignment.
In this transaction, the bank issues new deposits to buy cash from the depositor. The cash moves from the depositor to the bank. In terms of quadruple-entry accounting, we call it an asset intermediation because the depositor ends up holding an IOU for cash instead of the cash itself.
When the central bank issues new money, it expands its balance sheet on both sides, just like a private commercial bank.
https://preview.redd.it/uzljjhth651d1.png?width=795&format=png&auto=webp&s=97ab3698ea4ab6436c8968690f3683ed3eef4d93

The central bank is a bank. It's just not correct to say that the central bank is printing money. It's expanding both sides of the balance sheet at the same time. —Lecture

On these balance sheets, the word "reserves" refers to the deposit liabilities of the central bank. We call them reserves because the private banking sector uses these central bank deposits as its settlement reserve.
The term "reserves" can mean at least two different things:

1. Monetary assets held to meet immediate payment obligations.
2. The deposits a commercial bank has on account at the central bank.

The balance sheet mechanics here are identical to when a commercial bank takes a cash deposit. Just as the commercial bank issues deposits to buy cash, the central bank issues reserves to buy Treasuries.
But there are a few key differences not captured by the balance sheets:

1. The central bank has replaced a non-monetary asset (Treasuries) with money (reserves).
2. The price of Treasuries can move relative to reserves.
3. The central bank is not passively standing ready to redeem reserves for Treasuries.

The central bank is, however, standing ready to redeem reserves for cash (and vice-versa). Just like reserves, cash is another liability of the central bank. Banks can decide which form of central-bank liabilities they want to hold as reserve assets. It can be any mix of cash and reserve deposits.
https://preview.redd.it/u710uojk651d1.png?width=822&format=png&auto=webp&s=87c659964567bcbdfaa22cabb7868bc678946749
The payment of cash to the central bank is shaded red to denote payment by set-off. The reserve issuance is, again, payment by issuance. These two payments, taken together as a transaction, constitute a refinance operation. The commercial bank shifts the form of its money reserve from one central-bank liability to another.
https://preview.redd.it/pcf3416m651d1.png?width=338&format=png&auto=webp&s=245d783727a0cb78558fbfcf130cd84bc1d58bb9
A shadow bank is like a bank, but its assets and liabilities are both market-based instruments. It borrows from the market and lends to the market.

Shadow banking is money-market funding of capital-market lending. —Perry Mehrling

The money market is the market for very short-term borrowing, often overnight. A borrower can use the money market in two different ways.

1. To cover a temporary payments deficit.
2. To fund a long-term position by continually rolling over (renewing) money-market borrowing.

Shadow banking uses the money market for the latter.
The capital market is the market for trading long-term securities such as stocks and bonds.
https://preview.redd.it/stlwdwtp651d1.png?width=553&format=png&auto=webp&s=3a982e14f6c92eea2f657ebe10f31cebd3da7029
Notice that there is no money (cash reserve) on the balance sheet of this stylized shadow bank. In real life, shadow banking occurs on the balance sheets of entities that do have some kind of cash reserve. But for the shadow banking activity itself, liquidity is less about cash reserves and more about the ability to roll over short-term money-market funding. Traditional banking leans more on monetary liquidity (reserve assets), but both types of banking rely heavily on funding liquidity and market liquidity.

Part 4: Central Themes?

Two key ideas:

1. Banking as a payment system
2. Banking as market making

The payment system requires liquidity. If you're not liquid, you can't make payments. And liquidity comes from market-making dealers.
Mehrling has a 2015 blog post, Why is money difficult?, that describes some of the motivation for explaining money. It covers some of the same ground as Warsaw Lecture 1.

In my teaching, I have come to appreciate a variety of barriers that people bring with them to the study of money, and to appreciate the necessity of bringing these barriers up to consciousness as part of the process of learning. —Perry Mehrling, Why is money difficult?

We can summarize the "alchemy of banking" as:

All banking is a swap of IOUs. —Perry Mehrling

Depending on how we define "banking" and "swap of IOUs," the above statement might be true or not. For example, one might reasonably suggest that simply taking cash deposits is a "banking activity" that does not constitute a "swap of IOUs."
Nevertheless, "swap of IOUs" captures something important about banking. Banks predominately lend through a mutual obligation with borrowers.
https://preview.redd.it/f9ck1bmu651d1.png?width=338&format=png&auto=webp&s=e5184582513346893e3f243ac2c313f190899d42
Both the bank and the borrower expand their balance sheet on both sides.
https://preview.redd.it/sy0mj2by651d1.png?width=783&format=png&auto=webp&s=032ce9676499e27172a209623a5c0ca8e8704757
Each party now owes the other something. And it holds the other's liabilities as assets. The deposit is the bank's debt to the borrower. The loan is the borrower's debt to the bank.
The bank's deposit liabilities are special because the borrower can spend them as money. The bank deposits are money to the borrower. The borrower generally can't spend its own debt directly. It must exchange its own liabilities for bank liabilities.
Imagine that I want to pay you money to buy some goods. If I have money, it just works.
https://preview.redd.it/9ofq8qq1751d1.png?width=338&format=png&auto=webp&s=aeaa2dcae347afa55d8634d8381c0462b5583750
I give you the money. You give me the goods in exchange. We've swapped assets.
https://preview.redd.it/b8ahjc83751d1.png?width=647&format=png&auto=webp&s=db34a3ff7a9706a51840fa1f100784217dee728f
If I don't have money, but you know me, then maybe you'll accept my IOU as payment.
https://preview.redd.it/ce118635751d1.png?width=338&format=png&auto=webp&s=fc8b101216ebc9da0ae64ed463901678955afb18
Here are the balance sheets.
https://preview.redd.it/udhhwm77751d1.png?width=714&format=png&auto=webp&s=0108f0215ca48df27dfb1e22dd207a6fea8dfafe
My IOU still isn't money, though. It can't be passed around as a general means of payment. Just because you accepted it as payment doesn't mean you can turn around and spend it again.
If you refuse my IOU as payment, I must find a way to transform it into something you will accept. A bank can help.
https://preview.redd.it/lvrafjaa751d1.png?width=1083&format=png&auto=webp&s=40b50f7cd6a60a6eb236afa00311bfc0abe55f49
Money now exists where none existed before. The bank has "monetized" my IOU.
It is perhaps easier to see what's happening with payment arrows.
https://preview.redd.it/muq5hc3d751d1.png?width=688&format=png&auto=webp&s=d411a8a5cfac0838cd2ca6261b15ef2dda286464
On the left, lending from the bank creates money for me (1). Then, I spend the money to pay you (2). On the right, you end up holding money, which is a liability of the bank. The bank ends up holding the loan, which is a liability of me—my IOU.
The four prices of money:

• Par — the price of one money in terms of another money right now
• Interest Rate — the price of money today in terms of money tomorrow
• Exchange Rate — the price of domestic money in terms of foreign (international) money
• Price Level — the price of money in terms of commodities/goods

Par
"One money in terms of another money" does not mean the relative price of two different currencies. That's the exchange rate. Instead, par is the relative price of instruments denominated in the same standard monetary unit. It is normally a fixed one-to-one relationship.
We expect a quantity of bank deposits to be redeemable for the same quantity of physical cash, or the same quantity of bank deposits in another bank. By allowing us to move freely between these different instruments, par facilitates the smooth functioning of the payment system. We only tend to notice par when it breaks.
A bank's balance sheet seemingly has money both as an asset (cash reserves) and as a liability (deposits). But only the cash reserves are money from the perspective of the bank. The bank is responsible for maintaining par between these two instruments.
Interest Rate
When two parties swap IOUs, the fact that one party pays the other a fee to enter into the mutual obligation gives us a clue as to which party wants access to the other's liabilities. We call that fee interest. And the interest rate is the price.
When I pay interest on a bank loan, I'm paying for a service. The bank's IOU (deposits) is worth something to me. Interest is what I pay to get it.
Exchange Rate
Today, the main international money is the US dollar. In the late 19th century, it was the pound sterling or gold. In any case, what matters is the relative price between the domestic monetary standard and the international monetary standard. For our purposes, the important feature of an international gold standard isn't the "gold" part so much as it is the "international standard" part.
A fixed exchange rate system is largely analogous to a single monetary standard with par relationships between instruments. Flexible exchange rates are more complicated. We will explore flexible exchange rates in the second half of the course.
Price Level
Notice that when Mehrling justified a role for the central bank, he said nothing about managing inflation. Mehrling emphasizes the price level the least of the four prices of money. This is partly because other economists tend to over-emphasize the price level. Nevertheless, money is meaningless unless it has some actual goods and services to buy. So we don't want to forget the price level entirely.
We also know that stabilizing the price level alone isn't enough to ensure stability of the financial system. By setting aside the price level—and assuming an unproblematic monetary standard—we can more easily explore certain features the system built on top of that standard, how they function, and why they break.

Part 5: Readings: Allyn Young

We will discuss this reading on Wednesday, May 22nd.
These four chapters represent only a tiny fraction of Young's 36 total encyclopedia articles for the 1924/1929 edition of The Book of Popular Science. You can read the rest—and more—in Money and Growth: Selected papers of Allyn Abbott Young Edited by Perry Mehrling and Roger Sandilands. I have not read the other chapters.
Please post any questions and comments below. We will have a one-hour live discussion of Lecture 1 and Lecture 2 on Monday, May 20th, at 2:00pm EDT.

Hey guys! This hypothesis was posted on my website and decided to post it on Reddit too. For clarification, a weak chin means a lack of a chin point, not a recessed jaw. Not everyone with a recessed jaw has a weak chin and not everyone with a weak chin has a recessed jaw. The hypothesis is called the Lip Function and Chin Morphology Hypothesis (LFCMH)

Introduction

Craniofacial development is influenced by a complex interplay of epigenetic, environmental, and functional factors. While genetics have traditionally been considered the primary determinant of facial morphology, recent insights from the field of functional craniofacial biology suggest a significant role for mechanical forces exerted by soft tissues. Building on this foundation, the Functional Matrix Hypothesis introduced by Melvin Moss highlights that craniofacial structures do not develop in isolation but as adaptive responses to the functional demands of surrounding soft tissues.
The Lip Function and Chin Morphology Hypothesis (LFCMH) further explores this concept by focusing on how specific functions of the lips—ranging from habitual expressions and postures to subconscious movements—might influence the development and final morphology of the chin due to labiomental folding. This hypothesis posits that sustained lip activities, mediated through the mechanics of the associated muscles, particularly the mentalis, could have a formative impact on chin morphology through continuous mechanical stimulation and remodeling.
This investigation seeks to elucidate the potential causal relationships between lip function and chin development. By empirically examining the variations in lip activity and correlating these with differences in chin structure among individuals, the LFCMH aims to offer new perspectives on craniofacial morphogenesis, providing insights that could influence both theoretical understanding and clinical practices in dental and orthodontic fields.

Methods

Image Acquisition and Selection: Photographs were obtained from publicly accessible online databases, ensuring compliance with ethical standards regarding privacy and consent. Selection criteria focused on clear visibility of both lip posture and chin morphology. Images depicting a variety of lip postures were prioritized to ensure a comprehensive analysis. Subjects’ identities were anonymized to maintain confidentiality.
Defining Analytical Parameters: Lip postures were categorized into distinct groups: neutral, tense, and protruded, based on visible muscular engagement and positioning. Chin morphology was assessed by examining attributes such as projection, contour, and strain. This classification facilitated a structured comparison of the relationship between lip posture and chin morphology.
Analytical Process: A visual analysis approach was adopted to evaluate the selected images. Each photograph was examined manually to identify and record the observed lip postures and corresponding chin features. The assessment criteria included:

• Lip Posture: Position (neutral, tense, protruded), muscular engagement.
• Chin Morphology: Projection (prominent, recessed), contour (smooth, irregular), strain (relaxed, overexertion).
• Labiomental Folding: Depth (Deep-set, neutral, flat).

Data Documentation and Categorization Observations were meticulously documented, noting the specific lip posture and chin morphology for each subject. A standardized coding system was used to categorize the observations systematically. This method ensured consistency and facilitated the organization of data for subsequent analysis.
Inter-Observer Reliability To enhance reliability, multiple reviewers independently assessed the images. Discrepancies in observations were discussed and resolved through consensus, ensuring that the recorded data accurately reflected the visual assessments.
Statistical Analysis Given the visual nature of the analysis, descriptive statistics were primarily used to summarize the data. Correlation analysis was conducted to explore potential associations between different lip postures and chin morphology characteristics. This analysis aimed to identify patterns that support the Lip Function and Chin Morphology Hypothesis (LFCMH).
Ethical Considerations The study adhered to ethical guidelines for research involving visual data. All images were anonymized to protect subject privacy, and no identifying information was retained. The research protocol was reviewed and approved by an institutional review board to ensure ethical compliance.

Results

Overview of Findings: A total of 142 images were analyzed to explore the relationship between lip posture and chin morphology. The images were categorized based on the observed condition of the mentalis muscle, which was either strained and wrinkled due to protruded lips or relaxed with a good lip seal. This categorization aimed to distinguish between "prominent" chins, characterized by a prominent and well-defined chin profile, and "recessed" chins, marked by visible strain in the mentalis muscle and less prominence.
Categorization of Lip Postures and Chin Morphology
1. Protruded Lip Posture with Strained Mentalis Muscle

• Description: Lips protruded forward, causing the mentalis muscle to strain and wrinkle.
• Observations: 56 images displayed a protruded lip posture with a strained mentalis muscle, and/or a labiomental fold that was neutral, flat, or in-between, but not deep-set. Among these, 96.43% exhibited a recessed chin profile, often accompanied by visible mentalis strain, and/or, flat labiomental fold.

Some Images:

https://preview.redd.it/7jewpz4tx31d1.png?width=347&format=png&auto=webp&s=73350323c93b04c50b62bc919a0fdd8480935fc0
https://preview.redd.it/2vsne05tx31d1.png?width=233&format=png&auto=webp&s=480c57ea725e7c20949e1afdba70d4c53ac7f085
https://preview.redd.it/opjln05tx31d1.png?width=188&format=png&auto=webp&s=6e7f59f3b7865bb43fef0e11b4275c76783b1252
https://preview.redd.it/2fhtwg5tx31d1.png?width=174&format=png&auto=webp&s=526788b0ca4bc7969b98bbf263bd8322fdcfa8dc
https://preview.redd.it/lsg1865tx31d1.png?width=351&format=png&auto=webp&s=bc3e340fe9a8647f1b997519644f481183e38fd8
2. Good Lip Seal with Relaxed Mentalis Muscle

• Description: Lips held in a neutral, closed position with a good seal, resulting in a relaxed, or protruded mentalis muscle, and a deep-set labiomental fold.
• Observations: 84 images showed a good lip seal with a relaxed mentalis muscle, and/or a deep-set labiomental fold. In this category, 100% demonstrated a prominent and well-defined chin profile, indicating favorable chin morphology, and/or a deep-set labiomental fold.

Example Images:
https://preview.redd.it/e2k6m49xx31d1.png?width=195&format=png&auto=webp&s=9612bcf50fa6aa728113b252078c1ef1c1d91d7e
https://preview.redd.it/vay0lz8xx31d1.png?width=181&format=png&auto=webp&s=774e90e60f1c1bb6fb5674a894f85b485e3d006d
https://preview.redd.it/dwxm3z8xx31d1.png?width=124&format=png&auto=webp&s=b3d6d63b4c947c69da72b22bbd4bc0d1bd2d477b
Correlation Analysis The visual assessment revealed notable patterns correlating lip posture with chin morphology:

• Protruded Lip Posture with Strained Mentalis: Frequently associated with a recessed chin, suggesting that the strain in the mentalis muscle, functionality of the mentalis and lip muscles, and their impact on labiomental folding, contributes to a less prominent chin profile.
• Good Lip Seal with Relaxed or protruded Mentalis: Strongly correlated with a well-defined, prominent chin, supporting the hypothesis that a relaxed mentalis muscle due to proper lip seal promotes favorable chin development. There was no mentalis strain (except for short, periodic facial expressions), or flat labiomental folding in any images observed.

Discussion of Patterns: The observed patterns support the Lip Function and Chin Morphology Hypothesis (LFCMH). Specifically, the findings suggest that habitual lip postures significantly influence chin morphology. Protruded lips, associated with mentalis muscle strain, and a non-prominent labiomental fold, tend to result in a recessed chin. Conversely, maintaining a good lip seal with a relaxed or protruded mentalis muscle, and creating a deep labiomental fold, correlates with a more prominent and aesthetically pleasing chin.

Discussion

Interpretation of Findings
The findings from this study provide observational support for the Lip Function and Chin Morphology Hypothesis (LFCMH). The analysis of lip posture and functional lip activity, particularly during dynamic expressions such as laughing and speaking, suggests a significant relationship between these behaviors and the resulting chin morphology. Individuals with strong chins tend to exhibit specific lip postures and functional behaviors that promote a prominent and well-defined chin. Conversely, those with weaker chins often lack these behaviors, resulting in a less pronounced chin profile.
Functional Matrix Theory
The results can be contextualized within the framework of the Functional Matrix Theory, which posits that skeletal structures develop in response to the functional demands placed upon them by the surrounding soft tissues. This theory emphasizes that bones do not grow independently but rather as adaptive responses to the mechanical forces exerted by the muscles and other tissues around them.

Impact of Lip Posture on The Labiomental Fold

A key indicator of chin prominence observed in this study is the depth and definition of the labiomental fold—the crease between the lower lip and the chin. A deeper labiomental fold with a sharper angle is often associated with a stronger, more prominent chin. This fold is influenced by the activity of the mentalis muscle and the overall usage of the lower lip.
The findings suggest that individuals with a prominent chin often maintain a lip posture that keeps the lower lip, or more specifically, the lower orbicularis oris muscle in a neutral or slightly pressed position against the lower teeth. This posture engages the mentalis muscle in a balanced manner, promoting the development of a well-defined labiomental fold. Additionally, during dynamic expressions such as laughing or speaking, the functional behavior of pressing the lower orbicularis oris muscle against the lower incisor region further reinforces the prominence of the chin and the depth of the labiomental fold.
Conversely, individuals with a recessed chin typically do not engage the mentalis muscle or the lower orbicularis oris muscle in the same way. Their lip posture tends to be more relaxed or protruded, leading to more mentalis muscle strain and a shallower labiomental fold. This lack of consistent muscle engagement and the absence of reinforcing and even opposing behaviors during dynamic expressions contribute to a weaker chin profile.
Clinical Implications
Understanding the relationship between lip posture, functional lip activity, and chin morphology has significant clinical implications. Orthodontists and facial aesthetic practitioners can leverage this knowledge to develop interventions aimed at improving chin prominence. Techniques that encourage better lip posture and functional engagement of the mentalis muscle could potentially enhance chin development in individuals with weaker chins.
Future Research
While this study provides valuable insights, further research is needed to substantiate these findings. Experimental studies with larger sample sizes and longitudinal designs would help establish causal relationships and explore the underlying mechanisms in greater detail. Additionally, advanced imaging techniques could provide more precise measurements of the labiomental fold and chin morphology, enhancing the robustness of future studies.

Conclusion

The Lip Function and Chin Morphology Hypothesis (LFCMH) is supported by observational evidence linking specific lip postures and functional activities to chin prominence. The depth of the labiomental fold serves as a key indicator of this relationship, with stronger functional engagement leading to a more defined chin profile. These findings align with the principles of the Functional Matrix Theory, emphasizing the role of soft tissue dynamics in craniofacial development. Further research will be essential to deepen our understanding and translate these insights into practical clinical applications.
We invite researchers, practitioners, and enthusiasts to join our ongoing discussion on facial development and morphology. Connect with us on the MewTropics Discord server to share your insights, ask questions, and collaborate on future studies.
Join the MewTropics Discord server: https://discord.gg/XDgwyBTk3X

References

1. Moss, M.L. (1997). The Functional Matrix Hypothesis Revisited. American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, 112(3), 338-342.
2. Orthotropics YouTube. (2020). Chin Assessment: How Soft Tissues Influence Bone Growth. [Video]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GmMKgXnyNH8

Hey guys! This hypothesis was posted on my website and decided to post it on Reddit too. For clarification, a weak chin means a lack of a chin point, not a recessed jaw. Not everyone with a recessed jaw has a weak chin and not everyone with a weak chin has a recessed jaw. The hypothesis is called the Lip Function and Chin Morphology Hypothesis (LFCMH)

Introduction

Craniofacial development is influenced by a complex interplay of epigenetic, environmental, and functional factors. While genetics have traditionally been considered the primary determinant of facial morphology, recent insights from the field of functional craniofacial biology suggest a significant role for mechanical forces exerted by soft tissues. Building on this foundation, the Functional Matrix Hypothesis introduced by Melvin Moss highlights that craniofacial structures do not develop in isolation but as adaptive responses to the functional demands of surrounding soft tissues.
The Lip Function and Chin Morphology Hypothesis (LFCMH) further explores this concept by focusing on how specific functions of the lips—ranging from habitual expressions and postures to subconscious movements—might influence the development and final morphology of the chin due to labiomental folding. This hypothesis posits that sustained lip activities, mediated through the mechanics of the associated muscles, particularly the mentalis, could have a formative impact on chin morphology through continuous mechanical stimulation and remodeling.
This investigation seeks to elucidate the potential causal relationships between lip function and chin development. By empirically examining the variations in lip activity and correlating these with differences in chin structure among individuals, the LFCMH aims to offer new perspectives on craniofacial morphogenesis, providing insights that could influence both theoretical understanding and clinical practices in dental and orthodontic fields.

Methods

Image Acquisition and Selection: Photographs were obtained from publicly accessible online databases, ensuring compliance with ethical standards regarding privacy and consent. Selection criteria focused on clear visibility of both lip posture and chin morphology. Images depicting a variety of lip postures were prioritized to ensure a comprehensive analysis. Subjects’ identities were anonymized to maintain confidentiality.
Defining Analytical Parameters: Lip postures were categorized into distinct groups: neutral, tense, and protruded, based on visible muscular engagement and positioning. Chin morphology was assessed by examining attributes such as projection, contour, and strain. This classification facilitated a structured comparison of the relationship between lip posture and chin morphology.
Analytical Process: A visual analysis approach was adopted to evaluate the selected images. Each photograph was examined manually to identify and record the observed lip postures and corresponding chin features. The assessment criteria included:

• Lip Posture: Position (neutral, tense, protruded), muscular engagement.
• Chin Morphology: Projection (prominent, recessed), contour (smooth, irregular), strain (relaxed, overexertion).
• Labiomental Folding: Depth (Deep-set, neutral, flat).

Data Documentation and Categorization Observations were meticulously documented, noting the specific lip posture and chin morphology for each subject. A standardized coding system was used to categorize the observations systematically. This method ensured consistency and facilitated the organization of data for subsequent analysis.
Inter-Observer Reliability To enhance reliability, multiple reviewers independently assessed the images. Discrepancies in observations were discussed and resolved through consensus, ensuring that the recorded data accurately reflected the visual assessments.
Statistical Analysis Given the visual nature of the analysis, descriptive statistics were primarily used to summarize the data. Correlation analysis was conducted to explore potential associations between different lip postures and chin morphology characteristics. This analysis aimed to identify patterns that support the Lip Function and Chin Morphology Hypothesis (LFCMH).
Ethical Considerations The study adhered to ethical guidelines for research involving visual data. All images were anonymized to protect subject privacy, and no identifying information was retained. The research protocol was reviewed and approved by an institutional review board to ensure ethical compliance.

Results

Overview of Findings: A total of 142 images were analyzed to explore the relationship between lip posture and chin morphology. The images were categorized based on the observed condition of the mentalis muscle, which was either strained and wrinkled due to protruded lips or relaxed with a good lip seal. This categorization aimed to distinguish between "prominent" chins, characterized by a prominent and well-defined chin profile, and "recessed" chins, marked by visible strain in the mentalis muscle and less prominence.
Categorization of Lip Postures and Chin Morphology
1. Protruded Lip Posture with Strained Mentalis Muscle

• Description: Lips protruded forward, causing the mentalis muscle to strain and wrinkle.
• Observations: 56 images displayed a protruded lip posture with a strained mentalis muscle, and/or a labiomental fold that was neutral, flat, or in-between, but not deep-set. Among these, 96.43% exhibited a recessed chin profile, often accompanied by visible mentalis strain, and/or, flat labiomental fold.

Some Images:

https://preview.redd.it/7jewpz4tx31d1.png?width=347&format=png&auto=webp&s=73350323c93b04c50b62bc919a0fdd8480935fc0
https://preview.redd.it/2vsne05tx31d1.png?width=233&format=png&auto=webp&s=480c57ea725e7c20949e1afdba70d4c53ac7f085
https://preview.redd.it/opjln05tx31d1.png?width=188&format=png&auto=webp&s=6e7f59f3b7865bb43fef0e11b4275c76783b1252
https://preview.redd.it/2fhtwg5tx31d1.png?width=174&format=png&auto=webp&s=526788b0ca4bc7969b98bbf263bd8322fdcfa8dc
https://preview.redd.it/lsg1865tx31d1.png?width=351&format=png&auto=webp&s=bc3e340fe9a8647f1b997519644f481183e38fd8
2. Good Lip Seal with Relaxed Mentalis Muscle

• Description: Lips held in a neutral, closed position with a good seal, resulting in a relaxed, or protruded mentalis muscle, and a deep-set labiomental fold.
• Observations: 84 images showed a good lip seal with a relaxed mentalis muscle, and/or a deep-set labiomental fold. In this category, 100% demonstrated a prominent and well-defined chin profile, indicating favorable chin morphology, and/or a deep-set labiomental fold.

Example Images:
https://preview.redd.it/e2k6m49xx31d1.png?width=195&format=png&auto=webp&s=9612bcf50fa6aa728113b252078c1ef1c1d91d7e
https://preview.redd.it/vay0lz8xx31d1.png?width=181&format=png&auto=webp&s=774e90e60f1c1bb6fb5674a894f85b485e3d006d
https://preview.redd.it/dwxm3z8xx31d1.png?width=124&format=png&auto=webp&s=b3d6d63b4c947c69da72b22bbd4bc0d1bd2d477b
Correlation Analysis The visual assessment revealed notable patterns correlating lip posture with chin morphology:

• Protruded Lip Posture with Strained Mentalis: Frequently associated with a recessed chin, suggesting that the strain in the mentalis muscle, functionality of the mentalis and lip muscles, and their impact on labiomental folding, contributes to a less prominent chin profile.
• Good Lip Seal with Relaxed or protruded Mentalis: Strongly correlated with a well-defined, prominent chin, supporting the hypothesis that a relaxed mentalis muscle due to proper lip seal promotes favorable chin development. There was no mentalis strain (except for short, periodic facial expressions), or flat labiomental folding in any images observed.

Discussion of Patterns: The observed patterns support the Lip Function and Chin Morphology Hypothesis (LFCMH). Specifically, the findings suggest that habitual lip postures significantly influence chin morphology. Protruded lips, associated with mentalis muscle strain, and a non-prominent labiomental fold, tend to result in a recessed chin. Conversely, maintaining a good lip seal with a relaxed or protruded mentalis muscle, and creating a deep labiomental fold, correlates with a more prominent and aesthetically pleasing chin.

Discussion

Interpretation of Findings
The findings from this study provide observational support for the Lip Function and Chin Morphology Hypothesis (LFCMH). The analysis of lip posture and functional lip activity, particularly during dynamic expressions such as laughing and speaking, suggests a significant relationship between these behaviors and the resulting chin morphology. Individuals with strong chins tend to exhibit specific lip postures and functional behaviors that promote a prominent and well-defined chin. Conversely, those with weaker chins often lack these behaviors, resulting in a less pronounced chin profile.
Functional Matrix Theory
The results can be contextualized within the framework of the Functional Matrix Theory, which posits that skeletal structures develop in response to the functional demands placed upon them by the surrounding soft tissues. This theory emphasizes that bones do not grow independently but rather as adaptive responses to the mechanical forces exerted by the muscles and other tissues around them.

Impact of Lip Posture on The Labiomental Fold

A key indicator of chin prominence observed in this study is the depth and definition of the labiomental fold—the crease between the lower lip and the chin. A deeper labiomental fold with a sharper angle is often associated with a stronger, more prominent chin. This fold is influenced by the activity of the mentalis muscle and the overall usage of the lower lip.
The findings suggest that individuals with a prominent chin often maintain a lip posture that keeps the lower lip, or more specifically, the lower orbicularis oris muscle in a neutral or slightly pressed position against the lower teeth. This posture engages the mentalis muscle in a balanced manner, promoting the development of a well-defined labiomental fold. Additionally, during dynamic expressions such as laughing or speaking, the functional behavior of pressing the lower orbicularis oris muscle against the lower incisor region further reinforces the prominence of the chin and the depth of the labiomental fold.
Conversely, individuals with a recessed chin typically do not engage the mentalis muscle or the lower orbicularis oris muscle in the same way. Their lip posture tends to be more relaxed or protruded, leading to more mentalis muscle strain and a shallower labiomental fold. This lack of consistent muscle engagement and the absence of reinforcing and even opposing behaviors during dynamic expressions contribute to a weaker chin profile.
Clinical Implications
Understanding the relationship between lip posture, functional lip activity, and chin morphology has significant clinical implications. Orthodontists and facial aesthetic practitioners can leverage this knowledge to develop interventions aimed at improving chin prominence. Techniques that encourage better lip posture and functional engagement of the mentalis muscle could potentially enhance chin development in individuals with weaker chins.
Future Research
While this study provides valuable insights, further research is needed to substantiate these findings. Experimental studies with larger sample sizes and longitudinal designs would help establish causal relationships and explore the underlying mechanisms in greater detail. Additionally, advanced imaging techniques could provide more precise measurements of the labiomental fold and chin morphology, enhancing the robustness of future studies.

Conclusion

The Lip Function and Chin Morphology Hypothesis (LFCMH) is supported by observational evidence linking specific lip postures and functional activities to chin prominence. The depth of the labiomental fold serves as a key indicator of this relationship, with stronger functional engagement leading to a more defined chin profile. These findings align with the principles of the Functional Matrix Theory, emphasizing the role of soft tissue dynamics in craniofacial development. Further research will be essential to deepen our understanding and translate these insights into practical clinical applications.
We invite researchers, practitioners, and enthusiasts to join our ongoing discussion on facial development and morphology. Connect with us on the MewTropics Discord server to share your insights, ask questions, and collaborate on future studies.
Join the MewTropics Discord server: https://discord.gg/XDgwyBTk3X

References

1. Moss, M.L. (1997). The Functional Matrix Hypothesis Revisited. American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics, 112(3), 338-342.
2. Orthotropics YouTube. (2020). Chin Assessment: How Soft Tissues Influence Bone Growth. [Video]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GmMKgXnyNH8

The Ultimate Halo Infinite Multiplayer Review - Review Graphic

GAME INFORMATION:

• Developer: 343 Industries
• Publisher: Xbox Game Studios
• Headquarters Location: Redmond, Washington, United States
• Setting/World-Type: Sci-Fi
• Genre/Sub-Genre: First-person shooter
• Perspective: First-person
• Development Engine: Slipspace Engine
• Platforms: Xbox Series X, Xbox Series S, Xbox One X, Xbox One S, PC, Cloud Gaming (Beta)

The Ultimate Halo Infinite Review - Halo Infinite Key Art

PUBLISHER & DEVELOPER INFORMATION:

• Developer: 343 Industries
• Publisher: Xbox Game Studios
• Headquarters Location: Redmond, Washington, United States
• Art Director: Nicolas Bouvier
• Multiplayer Art Lead: Donnie Taylor
• Senior Animator: Nick Avallone
• Lead Narrative Animator: Greg Towner
• Director of Art Management: Niell Harrison

The Ultimate Halo Infinite Review - Spartan With Skull Armor Promotional Teaser

TECHNICAL PERFORMANCE:

Xbox Series X
Performance Mode (120 FPS Mode)

• Refresh Rate: 120Hz (on HDMI 2.1 Capable Displays)
• Resolution: Up to 1440p (up to 4K using Temporal Reconstruction)
• Raytracing: Supported (Multiplayer Only)
• Variable Refresh Rate (VRR): Supported
• HDR10: Supported

Balanced Mode (60 FPS Mode)

• Refresh Rate: 60Hz
• Resolution: 1440p & 2160p Options (4K)
• Raytracing: Supported (Multiplayer Only)
• Variable Refresh Rate (VRR): Supported
• HDR10: Supported

Quality Mode (30 FPS Mode)

• Refresh Rate: 60Hz
• Resolution: 2160p (4K)
• Raytracing: Supported (Multiplayer Only)
• Variable Refresh Rate (VRR): Supported
• HDR10: Supported

Xbox Series S
Performance Mode (120 FPS Mode)

• Refresh Rate: 120Hz (on HDMI 2.1 Capable Displays)
• Resolution: 1080p (using Temporal Reconstruction)
• Raytracing: Supported (Multiplayer Only)
• Variable Refresh Rate (VRR): Supported
• HDR10: Supported

Balanced Mode (60 FPS Mode)

• Refresh Rate: 60Hz
• Resolution: Up to 1080p
• Raytracing: Supported (Multiplayer Only)
• Variable Refresh Rate (VRR): HDR10: Supported
• HDR10: Supported

Quality Mode (30 FPS Mode)

• Refresh Rate: Supported (Multiplayer Only)
• Resolution: 1080p
• Raytracing: Supported (Multiplayer Only)
• Variable Refresh Rate (VRR): Supported
• HDR10: Supported

Miscellaneous: Overall, the game does not maintain its target Frames-Per-Second (FPS) throughout the entire experience on *all* graphics modes, especially on larger maps and more GPU intensive scenarios, but it is in better shape than it’s ever been.
The Ultimate Halo Infinite Review - Spartan Holding Sidekick Sprinting

GAMEPLAY - 97/100

Halo Infinite’s multiplayer scene started off very rough and lacked a lot of mode choices at launch. When it was released, only four playlists were available. Ranked Arena, Big Team Battle, Quick Play, and Bot Bootcamp. Since the backlash, the game has been updated with a wide variety of modes to choose from, many of which are classic game modes like Fiesta, Swat, and Team Snipers. All of the modes are fun and provide different ways to utilize many of the new abilities and weapons in many ways. Each of the playlists has straightforward and concise objectives, like Oddball, where you simply gain control of the Oddball and defend the carrier while scoring points by holding the ball and preventing enemies from taking it from you. The maps have amazing layouts and make for a level playing field for each team.
The tide of the match can be turned by controlling and effectively using Power Weapons like the immensely powerful M41 SPNKR Rocket Launcher or the ever-deadly and accurate S7 Sniper. New weapons like the Cindershot or Stalker Rifle provide different advantages depending on your positioning, effectiveness, and understanding of the gun and its strengths. The maps have their own set of weapon pickups like the S7 Sniper. Each weapon available in the matches is well-balanced and can play to their strengths well enough to make them serve their purpose. The loadout guns in multiplayer have evolved from originally being the Battle Rifle and the Assault Rifle to eventually including the Bandit and Bandit EVO. Each fight comes down to who can land their shots better while maneuvering and which team can work together the best to control key areas for an advantage. Tactical abilities, such as the Repulsor, Threat Sensor, Grappleshot, Shroud Screen, and more, make a comeback. Power Equipment, such as the Overshield and Active Camo, also returns to Infinite. Each of these abilities and pieces of equipment makes fights more than just getting a powerful gun. It requires more coordination with your team to effectively use the equipment to its full potential, especially in ranked playlists.
Ranked play in Halo Infinite is as cutthroat as ever and remains highly competitive and team-focused. The ranks you gain while playing are fun to grind for with a team, but playing solo can be rough, especially if there’s no communication between players. Climbing the ranks is good fun and offers a great opportunity to see what the competitive side of Halo is like, considering how accessible the modes are.
Armor Cores appeared for the first time in the series as cosmetic sets of armor from both previous Halo games and the lore. The cores are unlocked through a battle pass with a variety of challenges available that can help you progress quickly. Customization options that fall in line with the season's theme are also available on these battle passes. The classic Mk IV armor core made a return in January 2024 and was the subject of much excitement since it’s a fan favorite look. Another widespread request from the fanbase was to be able to interchange helmets and coatings across armor cores. It eventually came to fruition and made for a resounding wave of approval from the community.
Event passes also make a debut in the game with a limited-time battle pass that often has its own cosmetics. For example, the ‘Fracture: Tenrai’ event had a Samurai-themed armor core that was no longer available after the event was over. It adds a sense of diversity to these limited-time cosmetics and rewards the more consistent players with cosmetics deserving of their time.
New modes are often on the horizon for Infinite thanks to 343’s desire to keep the game alive and well, and Season Five was no different. A mode initially introduced in Halo 4 known as Extraction was added with the release of Season Five: Reckoning. This mode revolves around a data extractor that is planted in a designated area on the map. Your team must then defend or convert the extractor until enough time has passed to earn a point toward the team's score limit of four. New modes often appear alongside the limited-time events that come with the seasons. For example, in Season Two: Lone Wolves, there was a battle-royale style mode called Last Spartan Standing that would pit you against 23 other players on Big Team Battle maps with five respawns and a pistol as you fight to be triumphant against your enemies. Some of the seasonal modes become permanent, like the long-awaited Infection mode that was released during Season Four.
FORGE CUSTOM
The classic Forge map editor was highly requested upon Halo Infinite’s launch, and it’s safe to say that 343 delivered. The mode has everything that previous forge modes included, like pre-built structures, components to make battlegrounds, and the ability to build to your heart's content. Infinite Forge introduced AI to the mode, meaning that it’s now possible to create battles and scenarios for use in Custom Games. Since custom maps come from the Forge mode, the two often go hand in hand with each other. There are many maps that take advantage of this and have their own unique modes, including Firefight. From a frozen Banished supercarrier to the last level of Halo: Reach, there is tons of variety for map choices. The Custom Games browser from Halo 5 and Master Chief Collection makes a return and makes a ton of fun modes available to be played on these community-made maps.

FIRST-PERSON SHOOTER - 85/100

Halo Infinite doesn’t deviate from the standard First Person Shooter formula in any way that is noteworthy. However, while lacking innovation, Infinite excels at sticking to what the series is known for and does the genre justice by retaining responsive and fun gameplay mechanics. At its core, Halo Infinite’s gunplay has some of the best-feeling weapons and satisfying kills in recent times. The gameplay is much faster-paced than the classic titles, but it manages to stay true to its original identity. The gameplay sets the marker high for the next installment and reminds fps developers that it’s okay to stick with what works as long as it's done well and is still fun to play.

GRAPHICS ART DIRECTION - 95/100

Graphics in gaming never seem to stop improving, and Halo Infinite is determined to make sure it’s not left behind. In the multiplayer scene, we get a good look at our Spartans via the Armor Hall, which showcases the various cosmetic pieces that can be equipped. The gear we don is sleek, with high-resolution textures over the Spartan armor. It’s easy to see the smaller details of the armor when zooming in, down to the smallest of buckles and straps. When in the multiplayer maps, the amount of time is put into the pieces that make up the battlegrounds. The new Slipspace engine also allows for an enhanced atmosphere that makes it easy to become lost in the map's details. This atmosphere is further strengthened by a more than impressive lighting system that includes ray-tracing. Despite lacking the feature at launch, the addition of ray-tracing gave Halo Infinite’s maps even further depth and detail, as well as a feeling of realism. These are just a few of the ways Infinite outpaces the prior installments graphically.
The art direction of Halo Infinite heads in a more detailed and futuristic design that further expands on what previous games set out to accomplish. Sprawling forerunner complexes that dominate parts of multiplayer maps lend to the futuristic aesthetic the series is well known for. The forerunner buildings that makeup part of multiple maps are both mysterious and beautiful in design. Maps like Catalyst see us inside one of the Forerunner facilities. It retains the beauty of many other Forerunner facilities while providing a unique perspective on what these mysterious buildings may contain. The primary attraction of Catalyst is the large midsection of the map, which contains a large bridge of Hardlight above a chasm and a narrow walkway going in the opposite direction. Around the sides are the spawn areas and small corridors to fight through. Upon exiting the corridors into the midsection, you’ll see the center of the map surrounded by two large platformed areas built into the mountain housing the map. The futuristic design and features of maps like this keep it interesting and always a fun time to fight on. This map is one of the best highlights of Halo Infinite’s beautiful architecture and level design.

MUSIC AUDIO - 90/100

Having good sound design for firearms is an integral part of a First-Person Shooter. After all, the most common sound you’ll be hearing is gunfire from enemies as well as your own weapons. The guns in the game all have a unique sound that makes them each feel at home in the universe. Whether it’s the boom from the M41 Spnkr, the rapid fire of an Assault Rifle, or a single shot from the all-powerful S7 Sniper, each of these weapons and more have their own unique sound signature. With these sound cues, it’s easy to differentiate the guns and gauge how much of a threat they pose to you. Aside from gunfire, melee combat is a very common occurrence in Halo multiplayer. The sounds of hitting another player and promptly causing them to crumple into a ball of broken bones are very satisfying in regards to audio.
The vehicles of Big Team Battle carry unique sounds and have their own identities, just like the weapons. Hearing the powerful engine of a Warthog approaching has become synonymous with either getting run over or backup finally arriving during a long fight. Sounds like that have become so iconic within the series and have made Halo easily recognizable in the audio aspect.
Gareth Coker is the mastermind behind the awesome music that can be heard during matches and in the menus. The soundtracks offer a sense of nostalgia while getting your adrenaline pumping and hyping you up for a fight. The songs intensify the battles you’ll find yourself in with their exhilarating melodies while managing to both reimagine and pay homage to the original games. Familiar themes and strings can be heard in the music but are excellently redone with a new flare that keeps them refreshing.

REPLAYABILITY - 100/100

Halo Infinite was once far from replayable due to the lack of modes available at launch. Since then, modes like Infection, BTB Heavies, and Swat (now called Tactical Slayer) have made their debuts in the game. The new modes have made the multiplayer scene reminiscent of older Halo titles in the best way possible. You’ll find plenty of fun playing solo, but when queued up with friends, it becomes a new level of enjoyment that is comparable to the golden days of Halo 3. Each mode brings its own set of fun experiences and possibilities that leave you coming back for more. It’s very apparent that 343 Industries has taken the feedback to heart and has implemented a slew of updates addressing the backlash.

FUN FACTOR - 95/100

Halo Infinite is one of the most fun Halo games to date, taking into consideration its excellent gameplay and game modes. During your time in battle, you’re bound to make some great memories whether you play alongside friends or solo queue. The community is engaging and has a very welcoming atmosphere despite the competitive nature of the games, which sometimes get rowdy but just add to the experience. The game succeeds at taking all of its gameplay elements and bringing them together for a fulfilling and cohesive experience. From the weapons to the abilities and maps, Halo Infinite, in its current state, manages to deliver everything we expect out of a modern Halo title. The game has amazing potential going forward, especially since the universe is so expansive and has so much to offer.

CREATIVE REVIEW

Since the beta of Halo Infinite way back in 2021, I have been smitten. The game just felt right to me, and I wasn’t the only one looking forward to playing the full thing upon launch. Every day, my friends and I would get on and grind until our play time was up. We usually didn’t know what to play afterward. It filled the void left by Halo 5 multiplayer that we desperately wished for more of. Upon release day, I was as disappointed as ever. It was half-baked and debatably just as disappointing as Cyberpunk 2077 at launch. The game had a long road ahead of it, but I was there for the whole ride out of nothing but faith and a little bit of bias.
To kick things off, Halo Infinite is great in its current state; let me get that established off the bat. When it dropped, it was pretty bad in terms of the lack of content. However, it has come a long way since then. The game has received a new coat of paint and some excellent polish on top to give it the extra shine it deserves. It has a great selection of modes, each of which is its own barrel of fun, both solo or with friends. For example, Team Slayer is the classic we all know and love. Spawn in, kill the enemy team until your team hits 50 kills, leave the match, and get ready for the next one. It's so simple yet so fun to do, especially when it’s not one of the only four game modes available. Variety is the spice of life, after all. Now, let’s look at a fan favorite: Infection. I can’t tell you in words how much fun I had back on Halo: Reach infection as a wee lad. You just had to be there. Halo Infinite is a lot like Reach in the sense that Infection is one of the most fun modes in a game since Black Ops 2 Zombies. It’s a blast running for your life and hoping to run into a teammate who can save you while eight infected players chase you down. It’s seriously a great time, as with many of the other modes we see in Infinite, like my personal favorite, Big Team Battle.
Big Team Battle is the definitive Halo multiplayer experience, in my opinion, since it lets you experience everything the game has to offer while not getting stale with its formula. So definitive that it deserves its own section. BTB sees teams of eight players duke it out on a large map while completing objectives and fighting for power weapons. The objectives can be things like Slayer, where, like Team Slayer, you spawn in and fight to reach the score limit. The main difference is that BTB has vehicles and more powerful weapons to grab since the teams are larger. It’s a great way to practice if you’re new to Halo since your deaths aren’t as impactful to the team. There are also more targets to practice on. Total Control is the best of the BTB modes since it’s objective-based. In Total Control, matches go on for much longer since scoring is more difficult than in other modes. To score, your team must control all three of the marked areas to score while defending from the other team who’s attempting to do the same. The first to three points wins. I can’t help but come back for more Big Team Battle when I get on Infinite. It doesn’t quite have the variety of modes that Halo 5 had, but it still provides a fantastic experience that is extremely fun to play.
Now that I’m done fangirling over Big Team Battle, let’s talk gunplay, which is the biggest thing in Halo. Human-made weapons like the Assault Rifle and Battle Rifle feel the best out of the entire series. As an Assault Rifle enthusiast, I remember trying to use the AR in Halo 5, only to get outdone by a Magnum Pistol. Halo 5 had a clearly defined meta, while Infinite attempted to do away with the whole meta thing. It feels like every gun is on an even playing field in terms of practicality when it comes to the base loadouts. Power weapons reign supreme, as usual. The S7 Sniper, M41 Spnkr, and Cindershot are all powerful enough to make them worth fighting for. All of the guns feel amazing, and none are inherently bad except for the Plasma Pistol, but is that really a surprise? It’s been like that since Combat Evolved, to no one’s surprise. The guns also have some great sounds and recoil patterns, which makes them enjoyable to use. The devs even added the DMR, which is now known as the Bandit. I’ve gotta say, it’s incredibly fun to use and extremely satisfying when you manage to land some headshots.
The map selection went from ok to great in a matter of months. Maps like Streets, Catalyst, and Aquarius are personal favorites from the 4v4 map pool, while Deadlock, Breaker, and Highpower are the best of the BTB maps. Each of these maps has an identity that sets it apart from the rest of the picks. Streets are reminiscent of New Mombasa from Halo 3: ODST, while Highpower gives off the feeling of playing on Forge World from Halo: Reach. Despite being similar to past maps, these new additions set themselves apart from the originals by utilizing atmospheric lighting and high-resolution textures to make an immersive experience you can get lost in when you’re not fighting for your life. The developers likely knew that the map's details would be lost among the gameplay and fighting, but when you take a moment to appreciate it, you can see that a lot of love was put into the designs. That’s what helps make Halo Infinite so enjoyable despite its past.
A humble comeback story mixed with community feedback and the unending dedication of the devs of 343 shaped Halo Infinite into a beast of its own. Seriously, this game is one of if not my favorite Halo games since it’s redeemed itself, and I cannot recommend it enough. The game’s beginning was very rough, and many laughed at its lack of enjoyable experiences, but 343 kept pushing. 343 saw the negativity and venomous response their creation had incurred, and yet they kept developing the game. In a way, this is my thank you to 343 for not giving up on a game we’d been waiting years for and for doing great work on a series that many of us grew up with. It’s plain to see that the team built Halo Infinite with love and sought to create something we’d remember as fondly as the Bungie era. There are bound to be those of us who refuse to revisit Infinite because of its botched origins, but I encourage you to give it another shot if you haven’t recently. It’s not perfect, but it’s a ton of fun when you approach with an open mind. It’s not the same as Bungie’s era of Halo by any means. However, its differences signify its new identity as one that is true to its beginnings but also changing to bring in new fans. For that, I think 343 Industries did a fantastic job with Halo Infinite’s redemption. Being that it’s one of the most played games on Xbox at the moment, I’d say I’m not the only one who thinks that.

SCORE SUMMARY - 94/100

Halo Infinite’s multiplayer is done correctly by the book. Since its rough launch, it has been very clear that 343 took the feedback, gripes, and technical issues and turned it 180 degrees. The gameplay is fun, engaging, and bound to keep your head on a swivel. The graphics and optimization for the game are top notch and add so much to the enjoyability of the game. It’s one thing to have something beautiful to look at, but when it’s also running and looking great on older hardware, that’s when you know you have something great. In terms of replayability, it's just as easy to revisit as any of the old Halo titles. Everything comes together seamlessly, and that’s why it’s a great entry into the series. It stands up to the standards of the original trilogy.
The Ultimate Halo Infinite Review - Score Graphic
Author: Roland Martinez
Title: Journalist / Reviewer
Favorite Game: Gears of War
What Their Playing Right Now: Nobody Saves The World

Charles Edward Merriam, the 37th President of the United States, Official Presidential Portrait
The Poisoned Chalice
Upon taking the presidential oath of office after the resignation of President Alvin York, Charles Edward Merriam found himself at the helm of a rudderless ship. Civil unrest was at an all-time high due to mass protests against York’s preemptive nuclear strike and large-scale labor strikes, much of the cabinet had been left vacant by a wave of resignations following York’s controversial decision not to consult his own advisors on the decision, and an already uneasy economy had been thrown into chaos by the total obliteration of a major trading partner. Even the sky itself had visibly darkened while global temperatures dropped, bringing about cries of the end times being visited upon Earth for man’s folly. In this moment of national crisis, Merriam took to the airwaves with a radio address to the American people asking them to unite with him in a national effort for the first 100 days of his presidency to right the course of the country amidst the national crisis.
Moving with alacrity to fill the vacancies within his cabinet and bring his administration into full gear, Merriam leaned upon his network of academic contacts to appoint a ring of economic, industrial, and social science experts — Jacob Viner, Bessie Louise Pierce, George W. Taylor, and Leo Wolman — into several key cabinet positions. Similarly, rather than appoint a political operative as his Secretary of State or War, he instead chose to elevate career diplomat and acting Secretary of State Joseph Grew into his position permanently while promoting War Department General Counsel William Marbury Jr. to be Secretary of War. Finding both Secretary of the Navy James V. Forrestal and Secretary of Agriculture John Marvin Jones to be highly competent and sufficiently disentangled from the chaos of the York administration, Merriam requested that the pair remain in their positions. However, Postmaster General Thomas Perkins Henderson would not be so lucky, as Merriam distrusted his close ties to President York and felt the office was wracked by cronyism, thus requesting his immediate resignation to be replaced with former Louisiana Governor and highly regarded reformist Sam H. Jones. To round out his cabinet, Merriam appointed California Governor Earl Warren as his Attorney General due to Warren’s wealth of experience in suppressing syndicalist insurrectionists in his home state, as well as Delaware Senator and businessman J. Allen Frear to manage the Department of the Interior with an eye towards economizing a bloated department.
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Secretary of State Joseph Grew, a defining member of the Merriam administration with his foreign policy expertise during the world’s darkest hour.
Calming a Roiling Sea
Believing that anxiety surrounding a national economy plagued by boundless problems was at the root of the national malaise that might yet inspire a resurgence of syndicalism, Merriam quickly moved to restore confidence for both consumers and businesses. As a first step to move past the combative relationships that President Hughes and York held with organized labor, Merriam invited newly minted American Federation of Labor President George Meany for a symbolic meeting to discuss labor issues and establish an informal political alliance to raise wages and working standards as a means to settle the persistent labor unrest. Thus, President Merriam and his Secretary of Labor George W. Taylor began applying the National Labor Arbitration Act to settle hundreds of strikes across the country resulting in a moderate nationwide increase in wage levels and the proliferation of employer-provided healthcare as a commonly provided benefit. Taylor even proved successful in earning the begrudging respect of Congress of Industrial Organizations President Walter Reuther’s respect despite the organization’s more explicitly confrontational approach to industrial relations.
Despite this success in the application of labor arbitration, Merriam’s ambition of comprehensive legislation to establish a formal system of corporatist economic structures was repeatedly frustrated by the inability to secure enough bipartisan support in the House of Representatives to pass several successive iterations of his proposals. Yet as a longtime proponent of executive power, Merriam was not entirely thwarted by this setback and notably issued an Executive Order forming the Office of National Research headed by MIT President Karl T. Compton and complemented by a number of figures in both the natural and social sciences to direct national research efforts towards answering pressing questions of the new atomic age. Perhaps the most significant of its achievements were the pioneering of new sanitation, public health, and antibiotic techniques to finally stamp out the bubonic plague epidemic that had persisted since the initial Japanese bioweapon attack. Furthermore, Speaker of the House Wright Patman was successful in passing a budget through the House substantially scaling back wartime spending and taxation in light of the transition of the United States military from a combat force to an occupation force abroad. Anticipating a corresponding decrease in inflation, Merriam worked with his Secretary of Commerce Leo Wolman to begin the process of relieving wartime price controls that had remained in place throughout the York administration while encouraging the development of private industrial codes of conduct for businesses to self-regulate prices.
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A wartime propaganda poster supporting labor arbitration that continued distribution under the Merriam presidency.
Sewing A Tattered World
America was not the only country suffering in the aftermath of the Second World War. The decade-long war had wreaked havoc upon the entire world and left entire nations virtually leveled by bombs and depleted of their resources. American efforts at international reconstruction had been haphazard and largely left in the hands of private charities during the York administration, much to the consternation of its allies and the occupied peoples. Thus, out of a mixture of humanitarian reasons, a desire to restore America’s international reputation, and a calculation that such destruction could breed communist movements such as the syndicalist revolt that had embroiled the United States, Secretary of State Joseph Grew proposed a much more ambitious plan that would soon bear his name. With the strong support of President Merriam, Congress earmarked a staggering $15 billion with wide bipartisan support to be distributed to European governments for necessary imports of food and basic materials from the United States as well as for industrial investments to rebuild the European economy. An ancillary fund was likewise also established to support the reconstruction of China, which had been ravaged by brutal warfare with Imperial Japan. As a committed supporter of free trade, President Merriam also used the leverage of the Grew Plan to compel the recipients of the funding to lower trade barriers between one another and with the United States in order to stimulate international trade. The sole major holdout would be the United Kingdom, where Prime Minister Aneurin Bevan remained committed to an autarkic system of steep trade barriers outside the Imperial system since the country had suffered far less damage than its peers in the Second World War.
Another guiding principle of President Merriam’s approach to international reconstruction would be a wide-ranging program of technical assistance. With the country’s decades-long commitment to widely available public education and a sophisticated network of universities engaged in industrial research, the American economy had come to be regarded as the most technologically advanced in the entire world. Already under President Dewey, the United States had begun programs of sharing its technical expertise in production methods and industrial organization to China and the countries of Latin America. Thus, Merriam’s formalization of an Office for Technical Assistance under the Department of State was an extension of an already well-established practice. With support from personnel and agencies in the Departments of Labor and Commerce, the Office of Technical Assistance undertook a wide-ranging and sophisticated statistical analysis of European industries to identify weaknesses in productivity while arranging for large-scale observation visits by European industrial leaders as well as the collation and distribution of technical literature in order to disseminate best practices across continents. Following the initial success of the program in Europe over the first months of his term, Merriam proceeded with an extension of the program to developing nations in the Middle East and South Asia in order to modernize their economies as well.
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A meeting of Grew Plan information chiefs in the American Embassy in France.
Year Without Summer
While atomic weapons had been deployed several times throughout the Second World War to destroy French, Russian, and Japanese cities, they had never been used on the scale ordered by President Alvin York to destroy the German Empire. As a result of the simultaneous destruction of dozens of German cities in fiery infernos, the atmosphere of the planet itself became choked by a layer of ash and soot that demonstrably lowered global temperatures in the following months. With the effect coined as a “nuclear winter” by British chemist Samuel Glasstone, a world food supply already challenged by the disruptions of war experienced a dramatic shortfall in agricultural production sending many war-ravaged areas teetering into famine. However, this presented a unique opportunity for the United States, which had for decades struggled with chronic overproduction of agricultural products causing dim economic prospects for the nation’s farmers. Now, there was a ready market for the surplus in the United States that persisted even through the nuclear winter.
Though European governments were already using their Grew Plan funds to import American food products in large amounts, Secretary of Agriculture John Marvin Jones was determined to employ the powers of the federal government in assistance of this shift. Backed by a series of executive orders from President Merriam, Jones vastly expanded the neglected Populist-era Sub-Treasury system to grant easy credit and storage solutions to farmers who lacked sufficient capital to take advantage of the vastly increased demand for their product while also using wartime legislation to purchase eroded land for its rehabilitation and resale for food production by government experts. Much like the rest of the executive branch, at Merriam’s direction the Department of Agriculture also leaned into partnerships with dozens of agricultural colleges spread throughout the United States to collect and publish a corpus of literature on improved farming practices and fertilizer production techniques to further stimulate production.
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Electrical lines going up on a rural farm as part of a program pioneered by Secretary of Agriculture John Marvin Jones to further develop American agriculture.
New World Order
Having earned widespread popularity among the American public for his statesmanship at home and thus leaving the November elections with a decisive popular mandate, Merriam turned to the pressing issue of foreign affairs in the latter half of his term. In the chaos of the Second World War and its immediate aftermath, the powers of the Grand Alliance had failed to conclusively agree on the structures of the post-war world. Even after the destruction of the German Empire, which had been the largest obstacle in the effort to conclude new international agreements, debate raged on what form these would take as the world federalist movement took root across the globe. In order to lay the foundation of future global cooperation, Merriam began by reviving the institutions of the Hague Treaty that had been rendered inoperative by the withdrawal of participation by several countries and subsequent outbreak of the Second World War. While the Permanent Court of International Arbitration would be restored largely unchanged from its original construction, the International Monetary Fund would be greatly transformed due to President Merriam’s influential support for John Maynard Keynes’s proposal to formulate a supranational currency called “bancor” to be the unit of account for an International Clearing Union tasked with regulating international trade.
While many nationalists and isolationists decried Merriam’s move towards the internationalization of monetary policy, the circle of Atlanticists within the party led by Vice President Edward J. Meeman was urging him to go even further towards world government. Compelled by a promise made to the Atlanticist faction during his party’s National Convention, President Merriam authorized the summoning of an international conference to discuss the concept of an Atlantic Union between the western democratic countries of the world. However, where many expected that Merriam might appoint a coterie of apathetic diplomats to undermine the movement, the President instead shockingly sent a delegation filled with committed Atlanticists led by New York Senator Grenville Clark, Tennessee Senator Estes Kefauver, and the proposal’s first author Clarence Streit to Brussels for the conference, much to the outrage of opponents of world federalism within his party. After weeks spent deliberating the minutiae of the Atlantic Union, the conference emerged just before the holiday season with a proposed constitution and hundreds of pages of documentation surrounding the historical precedents and contemporary reasoning behind the proposal to electrify the debate surrounding a world government.
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A Time Magazine feature of Clarence Streit, one of the leading theorists behind the Atlantic Union proposal.
God’s Instrument or War Criminal?
The most controversial question hanging over the term of President Charles Edward Merriam was the fate of former President Alvin York. To many Americans, York had committed a crime against humanity comparable to those against which they had fought against for a decade and the incident ignited a debate surrounding presidential authority to deploy nuclear weapons. Throughout the initial months of his presidency, Merriam dodged questions surrounding the President and declined to make substantial public comment aside from occasional suggestions that the President had sole command over the United States military. At Merriam’s private urging, Speaker of the House Wright Patman also squashed suggestions that a President could still be impeached after leaving office. Likewise, Merriam directed the Justice Department not to open a federal prosecution against York and thus leaving the ailing former President’s case in legal limbo. Speaking out more strongly after his successful reelection campaign, Merriam clarified that while he found the act personally abhorrent it remained a legal exercise of the President’s powers as commander-in-chief and that as the victims were nationals of another country there was no basis for either a prosecution or a pardon in the name of crimes against the United States.
Beyond just the conduct of the President himself, the atomic bombing of Germany brought with it new concern around the governance of nuclear weapons. Believing that tight-lipped military control over nuclear weapons under wartime authority was a large factor in York’s ability to unilaterally strike Germany, the Senate’s sole independent Brien McMahon led the charge to place nuclear weapons and energy development under the control of an independent civilian commission appointed by both the President and the legislative officers. Though his bill died in committee, it inspired the Federalist Reform Party to counter with their own bill introduced by Kentucky Senator Andrew J. May replacing McMahon’s proposed commission with a board to be dominated by military officers exclusively appointed by the President. While the Federalist Reform majority in the Senate quickly passed the May bill over an attempted filibuster by McMahon, the bill came to a screeching halt in the House of Representatives where the opposition parties unified to fiercely oppose its passage. With Congress at an impasse, President Merriam issued executive orders continuing the status quo of the wartime project board that had been initiated by President Howard Hughes.
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Independent Connecticut Senator Brien McMahon, who took leadership of the fight for civilian control over nuclear energy
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Note: Not strictly bound by Merriam’s term, the following sections are meant to summarize the state of the world after the conclusion of the Second World War.
The Red Stars of Europe
Throughout the decade-spanning Second World War, the United Kingdom had been under the leadership of Conservative Prime Minister Duff Cooper. In order to maintain control against the irascible anti-war opposition led by Labour’s Oswald Mosley, Cooper had resorted to the royal authority of King Edward VIII to unilaterally bring the country into the war and cancel elections throughout its duration. While he had been successful in prosecuting the war to victory and securing the downfall of Mosley’s control over the Labour Party, when Cooper was finally forced to call elections at the war’s end he found voters profoundly unsympathetic to his accomplishments and his Tory government was defeated in a staggering landslide by the Labour Party. Thus, King Edward was reluctantly forced to appoint the Labour Party leader, Aneurin “Nye” Bevan, as the Prime Minister of the country. As an ally to former party leader Oswald Mosley, Bevan quickly embarked on the domestic implementation of the “Mosley Memorandum” to nationalize wide stretches of the British economy while also pursuing a massive expansion of the British welfare state. Following the atomic bombing of the German Empire, Bevan forcefully attacked the wanton use of weapons of mass destruction in a surprise attack and relations remained frosty even after York’s resignation as President Merriam cut off the United Kingdom from any knowledge sharing regarding nuclear power and weaponry.
Yet even the radicalism of Nye Bevan paled in comparison to that of the Spanish Republic, where a blossoming social and economic revolution was years underway. Following the victory of the leftist Republic against Nationalist forces in the country’s civil war, thanks in no small part to the decisive support of President Frank J. Hayes, agriculture was rapidly collectivized by the Spanish government while a combination of state support and syndicalist initiative led to over 75% of the industrial economy being brought under worker control. Taking inspiration from the writings and political efforts of American President John Dewey, the Spanish also imported many of his principles of progressive child-centric education while undertaking the community construction of centers of adult learning woven into forums of political debate. However, standing in stark contrast to the system of government on the mainland would be the so-called “Spanish State” existing in Spain’s African colonies. With their heavy conservative military presence, the colonies had formed a powerbase for the Spanish Nationalists and thus served as a natural place of refuge after their defeat in the war, while the socialist Republican government held little interest in reconquering a system of colonies that it found morally repugnant. Thus, the colonies became the host of a rival government and ruthless colonial state that came under the leadership of Falangist Agustin Aznar after he successfully orchestrated the murder of his political rivals to become the Jefe Nacional.
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Prime Minister Aneurin Bevan of the United Kingdom, the sole power offering a serious challenge to American hegemony over the post-war world.
Integralism Lives?
After the surrenders of the Kingdoms of France and Italy during the Second World War, the Allied powers were too pressed for manpower in their colossal struggle against Russia and Japan in the East to administer a full military occupation. Thus, instead the administration of Howard Hughes accepted the continuation of their governments so long as they cooperated with American occupation authorities. As a result, Italian Integralism and its monarchy would continue under the auspices of General Pietro Badoglio who was vested by King Victor Emmanuel III and the Grand Council of Fascism as Italy’s new prime minister after the downfall of Benito Mussolini. However, Badoglio’s position would become increasingly unstable after the large-scale effort of the German Empire to fund and arm leftist Italian insurgents and increasingly dependent upon the United States occupation forces for support to avert their overthrow. While France would likewise retain its newly crowned King Henri VI, his political strategy would be markedly different from that of the Italians. Believing that the monarchist right would have no choice but to support him, Henri appointed socialist Vincent Auriol as his Prime Minister and issued a new liberal constitution to endear the political left to him as well. Final peace treaties with both countries, forced to be renegotiated after the destruction of the German Empire, would not yet be concluded by the end of President Merriam’s first term though the recognition of separatist movements in Brittany and Corsica was viewed as an implicit precondition by the American government.
As the political and military leadership of the German Empire had been devastated by the atomic bombings, the continuance of the Kaiserreich was not only seen as undesirable by President Alvin York but also simply impractical. Although York would not be able to oversee the country past its initial occupation, President Merriam held much the same opinion and negotiated the de jure abolition of the German Empire alongside the British and divided the country into two zones of occupation. Though relying on the expertise of the limited number of German experts who were both still alive and willing to cooperate with the occupation authorities, much of the day-to-day administration of the occupation zones would be carried out by the military forces of the occupying powers. Yet while the occupying forces made great strides in repairing the utterly destroyed nations and stabilizing its food supply, the occupation faced never before seen challenges with enormous incidence rates of cancer and a newly identified “atomic bomb disease” with poorly understood symptoms and little understanding of its treatment.
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King Henri and Queen Isabelle of France, wearing a more austere style in an appeal to the French working class.
Blood Tide of the East
After Russia’s humiliating defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1934-1935, the country slipped into a dark period of brutal dictatorship at the hands of Anastasy Vonsyatsky and Ivan Solonevich. Yet few could have imagined that the horror could grow worse. The employment of strategic bombing against its crucial oil supply, the nuclear bombing of several of its cities, and worst of all an enormous anthrax attack targeted at its food supply caused the disintegration of Russia into famine and anarchy. As the powers of the Grand Alliance had declared victory and withdrew their troops from active fighting upon the surrender of Andrew Vlasov’s warlord band to western forces, the turmoil in Russia remained raging throughout President Merriam’s term with little outside intervention. Forces ranged from the claimed Romanov regent Mikhail Drozdovsky to the classical Integralist Boris Savinkov to the bloodthirsty racialist Bronislav Kaminski and dozens more in between fighting for the desiccated scraps of the once mighty country.
Ever vigilant on the frontier of this anarchy was the Reichskommissariat Muskowien, the former German puppet state instated by the Kaiser to facilitate the colonization of occupied Russian lands by German settlers. After its Reichskommissar was killed during the nuclear attack while visiting Berlin, his secretary Erich Koch seized control alongside a junta of military officers proclaiming the Reichskommissariat as a haven for the German people and embarking on a program of ethnic cleansing of the local Slavic population. Fearing that a military response would not only require another costly and unpopular war in Europe but also embroil the United States in the Russian frontier, President Merriam opted to continue the York administration’s position of withholding recognition from the Reichskommissariat while instead extending American influence in Eastern Europe under the auspices of his newly formed Office of Strategic Services.
With the German puppet governments in the Baltics, Poland, and Ukraine deeply unpopular and dependent on German support, their governments quickly collapsed under American and British influence leading to the establishment of new governments in each of the nations. Taking inspiration from the British program to unify the three Baltic nations under a single Baltic Union, President Merriam undertook a nation-building program of his own to attempt to unify Poland, Ukraine, and Romania into a single federation. However, the project remained stalled throughout his term due to a lack of enthusiasm from the member countries. Meanwhile, in an accord with the countries of the Grand Alliance, President Merriam and Secretary of State Joseph Grew took to settling the geopolitical situation of the Balkans. With the restoration of the Tsardom of Bulgaria already settled and Greece still preoccupied by civil war, the chief question would be the status of the former Triune. Striving for a balance between the competing claims of Austria and Hungary which had spiraled the world into war ten long years before, Grew negotiated the formation of a Danubian Confederation to replace the former Triune with substantial autonomy granted to the Czech, Slovak, Slovene, Hungarian, Croatian, Triestine, and Austrian states composing it but unifying them with a common citizenship and foreign policy.
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The ruins of what was once a Russian home, a testament to the country’s seemingly interminable anarchy.
Self-Determination For Whom?
Over the course of the Second World War, British and American forces had come to occupy virtually all of the vast continent of Africa and with the end of the war it fell upon them to oversee its fate. With the recent independence of the United States of the Congo under President Alvin York serving as an example, both President Charles Edward Merriam and British Prime Minister Aneurin Bevan were committed to the eventual decolonization of the African continent but they also agreed that the bulk of the diverse African peoples needed further “instruction” on democratic governance and western culture before being granted independence. Thus, the colonial system of rule remained largely unchanged on the continent, though German colonies would be transferred to the United Kingdom as trust territories and French and Italian colonies remained occupied until the settlement of a final peace treaty. The sole exception came in the German colony of Tanganyika, where former German Ambassador to the United Kingdom Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck escaped the destruction of his home in Bremen through a chance visit to his former Askari soldiers and worked with a group of veterans to proclaim a biracial Republic of Tanganyika in the aftermath of the German Empire’s destruction. Recalling Lettow-Vorbeck’s famous guerilla warfare campaign in the First World War, both the United Kingdom and the United States begrudgingly recognized this new African Republic.
Though the British were slow to release their colonies in Africa, the immense pressure building up within India could not be contained any longer as the Indian National Congress refused to tolerate the continuation of the home rule status quo. Thanks in large part to the close personal relationship of Prime Minister Bevan and Indian nationalist leader Jawaharlal Nehru, negotiations proceeded smoothly albeit without significant consultation of Muslim authorities that Nehru had clashed with previously. In the final agreement, India was granted independent Dominion status within the British Empire as a united polity and quickly forced the remaining princely states to comply. Under pressure of a possibly violent revolt in Burma, Bevan also pressed for an act to give independence to the Union of Burma soon thereafter. Even less consent from the colonizing power was required for the Indochinese Federation under the leadership of Ho Chi Minh, which had already successfully cast off both French rule and a later Japanese invasion. Though cautious of Ho Chi Minh’s socialist principles, President Merriam and Secretary Grew remained concerned about the more dangerous Marxist-Hansenist opposition in the country and decided to recognize his leadership to bolster his position against the radicals. This anti-colonialist streak would also extend itself to Indonesia, where American troops were instructed not to turn the country over to the former Dutch colonial administrators and instead support the independence movement to foster a loyal American ally in Southeast Asia.
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An independence procession in the newly formed Dominion of India.
Democracy in the Far East
Ever since the fateful day in 1939 when the United States declared war upon Japan, the Tiger of the East had become entrenched in the minds of the American people as their mortal enemy. Yet even despite cries for the execution of Emperor Hirohito and the visitation of revenge upon the Japanese people among the public, cooler heads prevailed in the State Department. The initial stages of Japan’s occupation were overseen by President Alvin York, who magnanimously saw Japan as a country that ought to be reformed rather than punished. Pressing for the shattering of its culture of militarism, the installation of structures of democracy, and even the Christianization of the nation, York’s program for the occupation proved massively influential for the future state of the country. Yet it would be President Charles Edward Merriam, eager to draw down United States military commitments, who would finish the process and finalize the treaty with Japan. Among the provisions of the treaty were the independence of Hawaii as a republic under American influence, the annexation of several Pacific islands including the Ryukyu Islands to serve as American naval installations, the placement of the remaining Pacific islands into trust territories, and the total demilitarization of Japan under a democratic system.
The presidency of Tasker H. Bliss had ushered in a special relationship between the United States and China that had persisted for the next twenty years. Yet under President Charles Edward Merriam, it had begun to fray. Upon hearing reports of American aid dollars being embezzled by the Chiang Kai-Shek administration for lavish personal corruption and believing Chiang to be a fundamentally self-interested and unreliable ally, Merriam quickly soured upon the Chinese Premier. Yet with the death of Vice Premier Feng Yuxiang, the opposition to Chiang remained too scattered for there to be any viable alternative. Thus, Merriam began maneuvering to install a set of new East Asian allies to reduce the monolithic power of China in the region. Chief among these was the Republic of Manchuria, which had been declared by a multi-ethnic group of local leaders seeking to avoid Chinese domination and given patronage by both Presidents York and Merriam. A further spite to Chiang would come with President Merriam’s support of the declaration of Taiwanese independence by Lei Chen, as the island had remained occupied by United States Marines after the end of the war. Despite these affronts, tensions between China and the United States were somewhat assuaged by American support for the return of French Yunnan, British Canton, Japanese Fujian, and Japanese Shandong to the Chinese Republic.
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A woman voting in Japan’s first free and fair elections in decades.
World Revolution, of Two Sorts
During the Great Depression, the Dominion of Newfoundland found itself in total collapse and was forced to surrender its independence back to its colonial overlord in the United Kingdom. Yet the war years remained hard for the Dominion and its people remained deeply unsatisfied with its governmental arrangement. As the concept of the Atlantic Union spread through the world with the impending end of the Second World War, a local movement under the leadership of Chesley Crosbie began preaching for a declaration of independence and subsequent application for United States statehood as a demonstration of support for the Atlanticist concept. Though initially dismissed as a fringe movement, a rapid growth of support led the Atlantic Union Party to carry independence to victory in a 1948 referendum. A subsequent victory in the first elections of the Dominion brought the Atlantic Union Party into power and it made its application for American statehood shortly thereafter. Once again angering the anti-Atlanticist section of the party, President Merriam urged that statehood be introduced as a joint resolution of the House and Senate, which ensured its passage even despite the opposition of a critical bloc of Senators who may have made a regular treaty ratification impossible. Yet a similar attempt at statehood for the island of Sicily would be blocked by Merriam, who argued that the referendum used for its justification was illegitimate due to an opposition boycott.
Long suffering under the neo-colonialism of their former colonial masters in France and a newer clique of German elites dominating the local economy, the nation of Haiti became a hotbed for the ideology of Marxism-Hansenism, which preached a violent and permanent world revolution to secure control of the means of production under the democratic management of the workers. After succeeding in its own revolution to overthrow the capitalist class, Haiti became a haven for Hansenists across the Americas seeking to plot their own revolutions by supporting them with revolutionary praxis, arms, and propaganda. After the outbreak of a revolution in Cuba, President Merriam recognized the threat that Haiti posed to the stability of the Americas and ordered the imposition of trade sanctions to strangle the suspected flow of funds and materiel from American Hansenists to the island. Furthermore, Secretary of State Joseph Grew orchestrated a vote in the International Association of American States to expel revolutionary Haiti from the organization due to its support for world revolution and undermining the government of other member states.
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Map of the world by the end of President Charles Edward Merriam’s first term in 1949. Credit and many thanks to Some_Pole for helping create the map!
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