Cell Stage
More Parts

Google Eye (Sight) - Expands your cell's field of vision. Without eyes, your vision is reduced to a small area around you, so eyes are recommended. Cost: 5 DNA Available at the beginning of the game Fluke (Movement) - These move at about the same speed as a Jet, but with this, you can turn on a dime. Cost: 25 DNA Unlocked at level 4.0 Ink (Weapon) - periodically emits toxic clouds harming enemies caught inside it. The more ink pouches you have, the wider the cloud’s radius is. Grants immunity to other ink attacks. Cost: 25 DNA Unlocked at level 3.5

Longer Stage
User-made Cells Encountered
More Seven Ducks Studios-made Cells

Especially cells with the new parts (listed above).

Ability to Change the Shape of Parts
DNA Bonus for Killing Epics
Can Earn DNA After Filling the Progress Bar

Will only be half as fast.

Creature Stage
New Trait (Scavenger)

Earned by stealing territory, instead of killing or socializing for it.

More Parts (Early)

Sucker (Mouth) - Detritivore. Eats rotten fruit and decayed corpses. Cost: 25 DNA Abilities: Mating Call, Bite Lv. 1, Sing Lv. 1 Fluke (Movement) - Lets you Glide. Fly high above the ground and possible enemies for an amount of time. Cost: 25 DNA Abilities: Jump Lv. 1, Glide Lv. 1 Google Eye (Eyes) - Lets you see what is going on. Cost: 5 DNA Abilities: Sight Ink (Weapon) - Impresses creatures. Cost: 25 DNA Abilities: Pose Lv. 1

More Parts (Advanced)

Too many to list. Existing parts will also given new functions.

Ability to Merge Parts Together

Like arms and wings, for example.

More Abilities

Smell - Allows your creature to detect and follow scent trails. Hearing - Allows your creature to detect nearby creatures. Night Vision - Allows your creature to see in the dark. Dig - Allows your creature to burrow underground. Drag - Allows your creature to haul corpses back to the nest. Carry - Allows your creature to gather fruit in their arms to bring back to the nest. Climb - Allows your creature to climb onto various objects and surfaces, like trees, large rocks, and even cliffs.

Territory System

All creatures (except epics and rogues) will now have a large territory around their nests that they can roam through. Territories will be defined by boundaries (like nations in civ stage). Extincting creatures will earn you new territory, as will migrating, while allies will share theirs with you. Certain actions in another creature’s territory (eating their fruit, stealing their kills, etc.) may make them angry with you, while some gestures (sharing food, killing enemies, etc.) will improve relations. Gaining territory, by whatever means (killing, allying, stealing abandoned nests, migration) will give you DNA points and fill your progress bar.

More Environments

Forests, Swamps, Deserts, Tundra, etc.

More Types of Natural Disasters or Events
More Nest Types

Burrows, Trees, Caves, etc.

Different Food Types for Herbivores
Fishing Spots

With seaweed for herbivores.

Interspecies Interaction

Including other species approaching your own.

Larger Complexity Meter
Infancy Period
Egg Color Editor
Ability to Apply Paint Colors to Different Parts
A Need for Water

With more bodies of water to suit this need.

Actual Day/Night Cycle

With different species (including your own) being either diurnal or nocturnal.

Reward for Stargazing From a Crop Circle
Tribal Stage
New Trait (Devious)

Earned by destroying slightly more than allying.

More Tools

Drums (Instrument) - Used to ally with another tribe that is not hostile to your tribe. Blowgun (Weapon) - Poisonous darts are fired and do gradual damage, which increases with each successful hit. Egg Snatcher (Utility) - Used to collect eggs more effectively.

Separate Clothing Editor for Chieftains
Ability to Name Your Tribesmen
More Tribes
More Hut Slots
Different Hut Designs
Unique Main Hut Styles for Rivals
More Domesticatable Animals

In other words, a bigger pen.

Rideable Mounts
Intertribal Interaction
Assistance from Allies
Trading of Food
Ability to Use Domesticated Animals as Beasts of Burden

For things like hauling food, entertaining friends, and attacking allies.

Hut Editor
Civilization Stage
New Trait (Thievish)

Earned by coercing cities. (Cutting off trade and spice routes, forcing surrender)

More Cities
More City Types

Including floating cities, mountain cities, etc.

Vehicle Commands

Military: Escort - Select a vehicle to have military vehicles follow and protect it. Focus - Attack the enemy’s city hall, leaving other buildings intact. Cover Fire - Select military vehicles to target attacking vehicles. Thievish: Harass - Attack all vehicles conducting trade with a specific city. Economic: Auto Claim - Systematically claim all spice geysers within a certain radius of a city. Religious: Disable - Surround a city and shut down all turrets simultaneously.

Ground Units

Military: Infantry - Storm cities and kill all resistance. Thievish: Looters - Loot cities and rob citizens blind. Economic: Pitchmen - Go through cities garnering support for a trade route from citizens. Religious: Preachers - Go into cities to share their beliefs with citizens.

Roads
Different Weapons w/ Different Abilities

Military: Machine Gun - Moderate. Strong against other vehicles, weak against turrets, weak against buildings. Cannon - Slow. Moderate against other vehicles, strong against turrets, strong against buildings. Laser - Fast. Strong against other vehicles, strong against turrets, weak against buildings. Missile - Moderate. Weak against other vehicles, weak against turrets, moderate against buildings. Thievish: Vacuum - Fast. Strong for spice nodes, weak for trade routes. Snatcher - Slow. Weak for spice nodes, strong for trade routes. Economic: Container - Slow. Strong for spice nodes, weak for trade routes. Banner - Fast. Weak for spice nodes, strong for trade routes. Religious: Speaker - Moderate. Moderate against other vehicles, strong against turrets, strong against buildings. Horn - Moderate. Strong against other vehicles, strong against turrets, moderate against buildings. Harp - Fast. Weak against other vehicles, weak against turrets, moderate against buildings. Percussion - Slow. Moderate against other vehicles, weak against turrets, weak against buildings.

More Advanced Anthem Composer
Test Drive for Vehicle Editor
More Building Slot Arrangements
Alliances Between Other Nations
Assistance from Allies
Ability to Sell Cities
Ability to Expand City Walls

Would increase the number of buildings that can be placed in a city.

Different Templates for City Walls & Floors
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Turret Upgrades
Space Stage
New Archetypes
More Spaceship Types

Patroller: Defends the planet from attack. Can also be ordered to deal with ecodisasters within your empire. Fighter: Attacks enemy planets. Can be sent from afar or personally led. Freighter: Trades and hauls spice. Can also be ordered to send spice to a specific planet in your empire.

Stronger & Smarter Allied Ships
More Social Tools
More Spaceship Weapons

Including the rapid-fire weapon enemy ships use.

Orbital Colonies for Gas Giants

Can extract White Spice.

More Advanced Alliance System

Including the ability to make peace between two of your allies who are at war with each other.

The Ability to Organize Items in Your Cargo Bay
Storage Size Upgrades
Rewards for Earning Badges
Refugee Colonies

If an ally’s empire is wiped out, these colonies will give the survivors a place to stay. You can also offer refuge to defeated enemies as well. In either case, refugees can eventually rebuild their empires, after which you will have a relationship bonus with them. (+10 for Allies - “You showed us kindness”, +5 for enemies - “You showed us mercy”)

Less T-Score Restrictions

For example, higher limits on the number of colonies that can be placed. (T0 - 2 Colonies, T1 - 4 Colonies, T2 - 6 Colonies, T3 - 8 Colonies) Also T-scores could influence the size of colonies. (T0 - No Expansion, T1 - Single Expansion, T2 - Double Expansion, T3 - Triple Expansion)

Long Range Communicator

Other empires can do it, why not yours?

More Galactic Objects
More Star Types

White Dwarfs (Type A), Brown Dwarfs (Type T), Black Dwarfs (Type Y), and Red Giants (Type C), to name a few.

More Colony Types

For example, Coastal Colonies (Placed along shorelines), Floating Colonies (Placed on water), and High-Terrain Colonies (Placed around mountains).

Ability to Sell Star Systems
More Representation for Knights

Including Captain Parts, collectable Rare Items, the ability to encounter Knight empires (w/ Conversion mission), unique voice-type, and their own philosophy.

Constellations

And rewards for finding them. (By star hopping, like finding empires)

Ice That Matches Sea Colors
Planets w/ Rings
Rewards for Finding Full Rare Item Sets
Possibility for Uprisings to Result in Defection

Basically, when colonists revolt due to low happiness, if left unchecked, they will eventually demand the right to secede. If you choose to grant it to them peacefully, they will break off and form a new empire with a +5 relationship bonus (“You honored our independence“). If you refuse, there will be a rebellion. Rebels will fly from colony to colony garnering support from colonists, in a manner similar to religious conversion in civilization stage. If you defeat them, the rebellion will end. However, if they succeed, they will break off and form a new empire with a -5 relationship bonus (“You tried to oppress us”).

New Editors
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Flora Editor
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Hut Editor

Scanner systems initiated….
Locating system….
Obtaining data from celestial bodies…
Identifying goldilocks zone…
Locating terraformed planet…
Mapping tectonic plates…

Data gathered, automatically generated description generated, have a nice day.

T.A.B. (Terraforming Analysis Bot):

Introduction and astronomy:
Welcome to Seed world number 000-000-0001, Berylia, an earth sized planet orbiting the goldilocks zone of a yellow main sequence star with three other rocky planets in system 000-4501-1121, one called Ferros, another called Sulphuris, and the last one called Vicus. These were judged as unsuitable for supporting most complex life, due to lying outside the goldilocks zone. Formerly a place where a large amount of gemstone extraction has occurred, it has become the subject of a hobby, in which evolution will take place with not too much outside influence occurring. The planets crust is still rather rich in gemstones however, especially Beryl in quite a few regions, such as the Centro-Beryterranic mountain range and the continent of Smaragnia still have a good amount of deposits.
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Topography:
The majority of the landmass is dominated by tropical rainforest spread over many islands and coastlines, though there are still other biomes in places where conditions allow. The oceans mostly consist of shallow seas utilizing the various previous mining areas as bases for artificial reefs and caverns.
Legend:
Dark green – Tropical rainforest
Yellow – Tropical grassland
Brown – Temperate Rainforest
Greenish Brown – Temperate forest
Faded green – Flower tundra/Moss tundra
Grey – Mountains

So, looking at the Imbued Wood Foci from the Eberron books, I decided to incorporate them into my homebrew campaign setting, and defined how the actual trees they are carved from look and their magical environmental effects. I would love feedback, suggested changes and improvements, and if you like anything here, feel free to take it for your home games!
Imbued Trees of Verum The imbued trees of Verum are known for being infused with elemental magics by, as of yet, unknown means. As a result, they have a number of effects on the local habitat, and arcane foci made from their bark adds a single point of damage to spells that cause damage of the element they are imbued with.
Fernian Ash Found predominantly in the volcanic regions of Khober on the continent of Dragontooth, this tree is known for its black, charred bark, veins of glowing red and orange, and occasional ruptures of boiling sap that has the appearance of lava. It's leaves coloured vibrant red and orange, and glow like open flames. Traversing Fernian woods is considered travelling in the extreme heat exuded from the trees. It's dark brown lumber can be expertly carved to produce arcane foci that add an additional damage to spells that produce fire.
Irian Rosewood Rare is it to come across such a site of such heavenly beauty as is a grove of Irian Rosewoods. Their smooth, white bark is luminous, and casts their surroundings in daylight that not even magic can darken. It is known for its fragile, golden leaves, and sap that has the appearance and consistency of purest water, and is sought after ingredient for healing tinctures and medicines. These Rosewoods are native to the woodlands of Cloverfell, on the continent of Nentiri. It's lumber, which is rose-coloured with flecks of white, can be expertly carved to produce arcane foci that add an additional damage to spells that produce radiance.
Kythrian Manchineel Native to the swamplands of Erogon, on the continent of Dragonfist, this black-leafed tree is well known for the noxious environments they inhabit. The land around them becomes corrosive and toxic to all but the most hardy of fungi and detritivores, as well as home to many terrible diseases. It's bark is grey, with green vein-like markings, and it's sap is a pungent green sludge, that is known for eating through clothing and flesh. It's deep purple coloured lumber can be expertly carved to produce arcane foci that add an additional damage to spells that produce poison or acid. These foci also have the unfortunate property of being quite smelly, and it is not uncommon for mages to regularly treat their wands or staffs with perfumed oils or varnishes.
Lamannian Oak On stormy nights the rainforests of Wildeloch alight as small bolts of lightning spark between the branches of Lamannian Oaks. Their navy barks are covered in protrusions of copper-like spikes and barbs, which channels the raw elemental power of storms, and stores them within the tree. These then discharge from branch to branch, momentarily causing the copper coloured leaves of the entire tree to glow, as the leaves' veins alight in blue incandescence. Travellers often have to deal with copious amounts of painful, but otherwise harmless, static shocks from the barks of the trees, as well as any metal they carry. The Oak's sap is a runny, metallic substance, similar to gallium, but brown in colouration. It's lumber, which is a marbled pattern of navy and copper, can be expertly carved to produce arcane foci that add an additional damage to spells that produce lightning or thunder.
Mabaran Ebony Deep within the swamps of Brickerbrack, these leafless trees grow, far apart, in the dry patches of dead woodland. The trees grow into shapes that appear, though distorted, strangely humanoid in form, with their branches forming claw-like appendages. Apart from Mabaran Ebony, nothing grows in these lands, not even creatures and fungal growths that feed off of decay, and they are constantly cast in thick, rolling mist, that accentuate the sinister appearance of the trees. The undead are common in these areas, either drawn from distant lands, or corrupted by the black, tar-like sap that bubbles from the Mabaran Ebony. It's lumber, as black as its bark, can be expertly carved to produce arcane foci that add an additional damage to spells that produce necrotism.
Risian Pine This pine is found exclusively in the forest tundras of Frostglade, on the continent of Nentiri. Its bark is a reddish-brown, and its holds a thick, gel-like sap of a light blue colouration, which is cold enough that those who have it spilled on their bare hands often suffer extreme frostbite. Its leaves, which do not shed, are also a of light blue colour, though the climate in which they grow ensures they are almost always covered in a thick layer of snow. Even in the freezing weather common to the Dwarven homeland, Risian Pine woodlands are known to be especially cold. Often, the frozen bodies of explorers and travellers unfamiliar to the area are found in these woodlands, having attempted to escape a terrible blizzard, only for their would-be sanctuary to ensure their chilly deaths. It's teal lumber can be expertly carved to produce arcane foci that add an additional damage to spells that produce cold.
Shavarran Birch Found in the oases of Zardonia, on the continent of Daggeron, these curious trees require such little sustenance that they can grow in nothing but sand. This is because these trees frequently disappear and reappear at random, shifting in and out of reality with a squeaky “pop”. It is believed they travel back and forth between different planes of existence, taking in all the nutrients they need from multiple sources throughout the multiverse. Their bark is a orange-brown colour, and they are covered in eye-shaped markings formed from the branches shed earlier in their life. They don't have leaves in the traditional sense, instead their branches from around strange bubbles, through which one can look and see a vastly different landscape. These bubbles are nigh-invulnerable, only dissolving once the tree itself has expired, at which point they burst in a wave of forceful planar energy. Harvesting Shavarran Birch is closer to the job of a huntsman than a lumberjack, these any tree might only be on our plane for but a few hours before vanishing. The sap from these trees is an ethereal, prismatic substance that floats on the air, and the woods of these trees are permeated by this intangible, rainbow-coloured mist. It's yellow-brown lumber can be expertly carved to produce arcane foci that add an additional damage to spells that expel magical force.
Xorian Wenge These densely growing trees are native to the forests of Ostradook, on the continent of Greyrook. Growing in areas colloquially known as “whispering woods”, their light brown bark and verdant leaves feature darker hued swirling patterns, and their sap is a blood red liquid. Traversing these woods can be harrowing for the unprepared, as they hear source-less whispers in the back of their minds that gradually grow louder as they journey deeper into these forests. Though frightening to the inexperienced, these whispers are nothing but the wandering thoughts of previous travellers reverberating between the Xorian Wenge, which has a unique attunement to the psychic energies of thinking creatures. Most of these psychic whispers are unintelligible, but occasional a traveller might pick up a juicy bit of gossip or a long forgotten secret. It's dark red lumber can be expertly carved to produce arcane foci that add an additional damage to spells that harm ones psyche.

40.1- Earth’s climate influences the structure and distribution of terrestrial biomes Ecologists observe nature, generate hypotheses, manipulate environmental variables, and observe outcomes. Biosphere- the global ecosystem Global Ecology- how the regional exchange of energy and materials influences functions and locations of organisms Landscape- connected ecosystems Landscape ecology- studying the factors that affect the exchanges of energy,materials, and organisms across multiple ecosystems. Community- a group of populations of different species in an area Community Ecology- studies how interactions between species, such as predation and competition, affect community structure and organization Population- a group of individuals of the same species living in an area Organismal ecology- studies how an organism's structure, physiology, and behavior (animals only) Climate- Long term weather conditions in an area Abiotic factors- nonliving chemical and physical attributes of an environment Biotic factors- other living organisms Macroclimate- climate at the global,regional,and landscape levels Global air circulation and precipitation patterns are caused by the high solar radiation at the equator The warm and wet air from the equator rises and causes precipitation in the tropics Oceans play a large part in the climates of coastal areas because the warm or cold water heats or cools the air that pass over them and onto land Mountains force air up which causes it to cool Biomes- major life zones characterized by vegetation type (in terrestrial biomes) or by the physical environment (in aquatic biomes) Climograph- a plot of the annual mean temperature and precipitation in a particular region Disturbance- an event such as a storm, fire, or human activity that changes a community, removing organisms and altering source availability Ecotone- area of intergradation
Tropical Forest Equatorial and sub equatorial regions with temperatures ranging from 25-29 C In many forests, layers from top to bottom consist of the upper canopy, the lower tree layer, shrub understory, ground layer of herbaceous plants, forest floor, and root layer. In tropical rain forests, rainfall is constant, 200-400 cm annually In tropical dry forests, average is 150-200 cm annually, with 6-7 month dry season Tropical forests are vertically layered, and plants compete for light Broadleaf evergreen trees are dominant, where many dry forest trees drop their leaves during the dry season. Animal diversity is higher than any other terrestrial biome Savanna Equatorial and sub equatorial regions 30-50 cm average rainfall annually The dry season lasts up to 9 months with temperatures ranging from 24-29 C Scattered trees are thorny and small leaves which are adaptations to dry conditions Fires are common so the dominant plant species are adapted to fire and tolerant of the seasonal drought Wildebeests, zebras, lions, hyenas, etc.. Insects are dominant, especially termites Desert Occur near 30 north and south latitudes Precipitation is low with <30 cm annually Temperature is -30 C at the coldest and 50 C at the hottest Landscapes are dominated by low, widely scattered vegetation Plants have adapted to heat and desiccation, water storage, reduced leaf surface area, and physical defenses such as spines and toxins in leaves Many plants carry out C4 of CAM photosynthesis They are homes to scorpions, ants, beetles, snakes, etc. Chaparral Midlatitude coastal regions 30-50 cm of precipitation, highly seasonal, rainy winters, dry summers. Other seasons are 10-12 C, the summers are <30 C Dominated by shrubs and small trees adapted to regular fires. Some plants produce seeds that will germinate after being exposed to fire, resources stored in roots to protect against burning and allows the plants to resprout quickly after the fire Adaptations to drought include tough, evergreen leaves which reduce water loss Animals include deer, goats, which feed on twigs and buds of woody vegetation There are also many species of insects, amphibians, small mammals, and birds Temperate Grasslands Midlatitudes are mainly on the interior of continents 30-100 cm of annual precipitation. Can be highly seasonal, dry winters and wet summers The average temperature is -10 C in winter and 30 C in summer The dominant plants are grasses and forbs few cm to 2 meters in tall grass prairies Adaptations help them survive periodic droughts and fire. Grazing by large mammals like bison and/or horses help prevent woody shrubs and trees. Burrowing mammals such as prairie dogs are common Northern Coniferous Forest Occur on a large band across North America and Eurasia to edge of Arctic tundra It is the largest terrestrial biome 30-70 cm precipitation, cold winters with a temperatures around -50C and 20C in summer Cone bearing trees (conifers- pine, spruce,etc.) are common, some depend on fire to regenerate conical shape prevents snow from accumulating and breaking branches. Plant diversity in shrub and herb layers lower than in temperate broadleaf forests Mammals include moose, brown bears, and tigers. Outbreaks of insects can kill vast tracts of trees Temperate Broadleaf Forest Midlatitudes in the northern hemisphere, smaller areas in Chile, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand 70-200 cm precipitation significant amounts fall during all seasons, winters are around 0C and summers are <35C The dominant plants are deciduous trees which drop their leaves before winter Mammals hibernate in winter while birds migrate
Tundra Covers expansive areas of Arctic (20% of earth’s surface), high wind low temp produce alpine tundra on very high mountaintops at all latitudes 20-60 cm precipitation yearly, may exceed 100 cm/year in alpine tundras. Winters are a cold -30 C, summers are 10C Vegetation is mostly herbaceous, typically mixture of mosses, grasses, and forbs with dwarf shrubs, trees, and lichens. Permanently frozen soil layer (permafrost) restricts growth of plant roots. Large musk oxen, bears, wolves, foxes, and snowy owls. Many birds migrate to tundra for summer nesting 40.2-Aquatic biomes Zonation- many aquatic biomes are divided vertically and horizontally Pelagic zone- vast realm of open blue water Photic zone- where there is sufficient light for photosynthesis Aphotic zone- where little light penetrates Benthic zone- at the bottom of pelagic zone, consists of organic and inorganic sediments and is occupied by communities of organisms called benthos Salt concentrations average 3% in marine biomes, while less than 0.1% in freshwater Oceans cover 70% of the Earth’s surface Freshwater biomes are influenced by water speed and the climate around the freshwater biome Aquatic biomes produce a large part of the Earth’s oxygen
Wetlands- overwhelmed by water sometimes and support plants adapted to water saturated soil Low in dissolved oxygen Filters dissolved pollutants Wetlands support crustaceans, larvae, dragonflies, frogs, alligators Estuaries- transition zone between river and sea, seawater flows up and down the channel during changing tides Nutrients from upstream make both among the most productive habitats on earth High organic production by plants and decomposition by microorganisms, water and soils are often low in oxygen. Soils favor growth of plants, such as cattails and sedges in wetlands and saltmarsh grasses in estuaries
Lakes Oligotrophic lakes- nutrient poor and oxygen rich; less surface area than eutrophic lakes Eutrophic lakes- nutrient rich and depleted of oxygen in deepest zone during summer and is covered in ice in winter Littoral zone- rooted and floating aquatic plants live in this zone, the shallow well lit waters close to shore Limnetic zone- the water is too deep to support rooted aquatic plants, inhabited by a variety of phytoplankton etc. Streams and Rivers Headwater streams are cold, clear, and swift. Downstream in larger rivers- water is warmer and more turbid because of suspended sediment Nutrient content increases from headwaters to mouth, oxygen opposite Streams are often narrow with a rocky bottom River generally wide and meandering, bottoms often silty from sediments Rich in phytoplankton or rooted aquatic plants for grassland or desert streams and organic matter from terrestrial vegetation for forests Intertidal zones Upper strata experience longer exposures to air and greater variations in temp and salinity. Oxygen and nutrient levels are high and are renewed with each turn of the tides Rocky or sandy substrates of intertidal zones select for particular behavior and anatomy among organisms. The configuration of bays or coastlines influences the magnitudes of tides and the exposure of intertidal zones to waves Coral Reefs Formed largely from calcium carbonate skeletons of coral Sensitive to temp below 18-20C and above 30C. Deep sea reefs are found at 200-1500 m below surface Require high levels of oxygen and are excluded by high inputs of nutrients Unicellular algae live within tissues of corals that provides corals with organic molecules. Oceanic Pelagic zone- vast realm of open blue water Oxygen content is high Nutrient levels are lower Average depth of 4,000 feet and a maximum of 10,000 feet Bacteria are the dominant photosynthetic organisms Marine Benthic Zone Consists of seafloor, except for shallow near coastal areas, it is dark, water temp declines and pressure increases Organisms adapted to continuous cold ~3 C and high water pressure Soft sediments cover most of the benthic zone Photosynthetic organisms, seaweed and filamentous algae live in shallow areas with sufficient light Hot environments near deep sea hydrothermal vents is where chemoautotrophic prokaryotes are the food producers Most consumers depend entirely on organic matter raining down from above 40.3 Interactions Ecological time- the minute to minute time frame of interactions between organisms and the environment Evolutionary time- time frame of many generations Dispersal- the movement of individuals or gametes away from their area of origin or from centers of high population density Species introduced to new geographic locations often disrupt the communities and ecosystems to which they have been introduced and spread far beyond the are of intro Biotic factors- Often, negative interactions with predators or herbivores restrict the ability of a species to survive and reproduce
Abiotic factors Temperature- cells may rupture if water they contain freezes, and proteins of most organisms denature at temps >45C Water and Oxygen- Species living at the seashore or in tidal wetlands can dry out recedes, and terrestrial organisms face a nearly constant threat of drying Salinity- Most organisms are restricted to either freshwater or saltwater habitats by their limited ability to osmoregulate (the maintenance of constant osmotic pressure in the fluids of an organism by the control of water and salt concentrations) Sunlight- Photosynthetic organisms that absorb this provide the energy that drives most ecosystems, and too little sunlight can limit the distribution of photosynthetic species Rocks and Soil- The pH of soil can limit the distribution of organisms directly, through extreme basic or acidic conditions, or indirectly by affecting the solubility of nutrients and toxins.
40.4 Dynamic Biological Processes Population- a group of individuals of a single species living in the same general area Organisms in the same population rely on same resources, influenced by similar environmental factors, and are likely to interact and breed w/ one another Density (population)- number of individuals per unit area or volume Dispersion- the pattern of spacing among individuals within boundaries or population Clumped- individuals are aggregated in patches Environmental factors, temperature, food, breading, defense Uniform- evenly spaced, may result from direct interactions between individuals Limitations to resources, antagonistic social interactions Random- unpredictable spacing, position of each individual is independent of other individuals Absence of strong attractions or repulsions among individuals or where key factors are constant across area Demography- study of vital statistics of populations and how they change over time Life tables- age-specific summaries of the survival pattern of a population Cohort- group of individuals of the same age Survivorship curves- plot of the proportion or numbers in a cohort still alive at each age Type 1 curve is flat at start, steep at end (humans) Type 2 curve is a constant slope (beavers) Type 3 steep at start, flat at end (birds) Reproductive rates- a fertility schedule; an age specific summary of the reproductive rates in a population
40.5 The exponential and logistic models Change in population size= Births + Immigrants entering population - deaths - emigrants leaving population Delta N/delta t = B - D (B is births, D deaths, delta N is change in population, delta t change in time) B=bN (b is the annual per capita birth rate) D=mN (m is the annual per capita death rate) r=b-m (r is the difference between the two rates) Delta N/delta t = bN - mN or Delta N/delta t = rN Value of r indicates growing (r>0) or declining (r<0) Zero population growth- occurs when per capita birth and death rates are the same Exponential population growth- a population whose members all have access to abundant food and are free to reproduce at their physiological capacity Carrying capacity (K)- the max population size that a particular environment can sustain Logistic growth model- per capita rate of increase approaches zero as the population size nears its carrying capacity Delta N/delta t = r(max)N (K-N)/K K is carrying capacity, K-N is thenumber of additional individuals the environment can support, and (K-N)/K is fraction of the K that is still available for the growth of a population When NK, (K-N)/K is closer to 0 and r(max)N (K-N)/K is smaller When N=K, the population stops growing Population growth rate decreases dramatically as N approaches K 40.6 Population dynamics Life history- the traits that affect an organism’s schedule of reproduction and survival (ex. when reproduction begins, how often the organisms reproduce, how many offspring are produced per reproductive episode) Trade off between reproduction and survival Selective pressures influence trade off between the number and size of offspring K selection- Selection for traits that are sensitive to population density and are favored at high densities (density dependent selection) Operates in populations living at a density near the limit imposed on their resources (carrying capacity) Mature trees growing in an old growth forest R selection- selection for traits that maximize reproductive success in low density environments (density independent selection) Maximizes r, per capita rate of increase Occurs in environments in which population densities are well below carrying capacity or individuals face little competition
Density independent- Don't change with density (birth/death rate) Density dependent- Change with density (death rate that rises with rising density/ birth rate that falls with rising density) Mechanisms to slow or stop population growth- Competition for resources, Predation, Disease, Toxic wastes, Territoriality, Intrinsic Factors Population dynamics- population fluctuations from year to year or place to place Metapopulation- a number of local populations that are linked
Chapter 41- Species Interactions Community- a group of populations of different species living close enough to interact 41.1 Interactions within a community Interspecific interactions- interactions with individuals of other species in a community Competition, Symbiosis, Predation, Herbivory ,Facilitation +/- is used to indicate how each interspecific interaction affects the survival and reproduction of the two species engaged in the interaction (predation +/-, mutualism +/+) Interspecific competition- a -/- interaction that occurs when individuals of different species compete for a resource that limits their growth and survival Competitive exclusion- an outcome where a reproductive advantage will eventually lead to local elimination of the inferior competitor, Ecological niche- the specific set of biotic and abiotic resources that an organism uses in its environment Two species cannot coexist permanently in a community if their niches are identical Resource partitioning- the differentiation of niches that enables similar species to coexist in a community Allopatric-geographically separate Sympatric- geographically overlapping Show differences in body structures and in the resources they use Character displacement- tendency for characteristics to diverge more in sympatric than in allopatric populations of two species Predation- +/- interaction between species in which one species kills and eats the other. Common behavioral defenses include hiding, fleeing, and forming herds or schools. Self defence is less common Cryptic coloration- camouflage Aposematic coloration- warning coloration Batesian mimicry- a palatable or harmless species mimics an unpalatable or harmful one Müllerian mimicry- two or more unpalatable species, such as a cuckoo bee or yellow jacket, resemble each other Predators also use mimicry Herbivory- +/- interaction in which an organism eats parts of a plant or alga Many herbivores have specialized adaptations just like predators do Symbiosis- when individuals of two or more species live in direct contact with one another Parasitism- +/- symbiotic interaction in which the parasite derives its nourishment from the host, which is harmed in the process. Endoparasites- Parasites that live within host Ectoparasites- parasites that feed on external surface of host Can significantly affect the survival, reproduction, and density of a host population Mutualism- an interspecific interaction that benefits both species Typically involves the coevolution of related adaptations in both species, with changes in either species likely to affect the survival and reproduction of the other Commensalism- an interaction between species that benefits one of the species but neither harms nor helps the other +/0 Hitchhiking species, such as algae that live on shells of aquatic turtles (also those things the guy who invented velcro used for the idea)
Facilitation- can have positive effects +/+ or 0/+ on the survival and reproduction of other species w/o necessarily living in the direct and intimate contact of a symbiosis
41.2 Diversity and trophic structure Species diversity- the variety of different kind of organisms that make up the community Species richness- the number of different species in the community Relative abundance- the proportion each species represents of all individuals in the community Shannon diversity index (H)- widely used index of diversity based on species richness and relative abundance H=-(pAlnpA +pBlnpB +…..)- where A and B are species in the community, p is the relative abundance of each species The higher value of H, the more diverse a community is Higher diversity communities generally are more productive and are better able to withstand and recover from environmental stresses, such as droughts Biomass- the total mass of all individuals in a population Most diverse plots produced biomass much more consistently than the single species plots each year Invasive species- organisms that become established outside their native range More diverse communities are often more resistant to invasive species
Trophic structure- combination of these relationships Transfer of food energy up the trophic levels Primary (source)- plants and other autotrophs Primary Consumer- herbivores and zooplankton Secondary consumers- carnivores (rats or small fish) Tertiary consumers- carnivores (snakes or bigger fish) Quaternary consumers- carnivores (top of the food chain) Decomposers- self explanatory
Dominant species- the species that are the most abundant or that collectively have the highest biomass There is no single explanation for why a species becomes dominant in a community Keystone species- not abundant in community, exert strong control on community structure not by numerical might but by their pivotal ecological roles/niches Ecosystem engineers- species that dramatically alter their environment (effects can be +/-)
V (vegetation) and H (herbivores) V->H means an increase in vegetation will increase the number or biomass of herbivores but not vice versa V<-H means increase in herbivore biomass will decrease abundance of vegetation V<->H means each trophic level is sensitive to changes in the biomass of the other
Biomanipulation- the deliberate alteration of an ecosystem by adding or removing species, especially predators. 41.3 Disturbance influences “Balance of nature” view focused on interspecific competition as a key factor of determining community composition and maintaining stability in communities Stability in context refers to community’s tendency to reach and maintain a relatively constant composition of species Climax community- a historic term for a biological community of plants, animals, and fungi which, through the process of ecological succession in the development of vegetation in an area over time, have reached a steady state. Disturbance- an event, such as a storm, fire, drought, or human activity, that changes a community by removing organisms from it or altering resource availability Nonequilibrium model- describes most communities as constantly changing after disturbance Even relatively stable communities can be rapidly transformed into non equilibrium communities Intermediate disturbance hypothesis- states that moderate levels of disturbance foster greater species diversity than do low or high levels of disturbances High levels reduce diversity by creating environmental stresses that exceed tolerance Low levels can reduce diversity by allowing competitively dominant species to exclude less competitive ones. Intermediate levels open up habitats for occupation by less competitive species Ecological succession- a process where the disturbed area may be colonized by a variety of species, which are gradually replaced by other species, were then replaced by others Primary succession- when this process begins in virtually lifeless area where soil hasn’t formed yet
Secondary succession- occurs when an existing community has been cleared by some disturbance that leaves the soil intact Early arriving and late arriving species are linked by one of 3 processes- Facilitate, Inhibit, Tolerate 41.4 Biogeographic factors Two key factors affecting latitudinal gradients of species richness- Evolutionary history and Climate Biological time runs about five times as fast near the tropics than near the poles, so intervals between speciation events are shorter in the tropics Evapotranspiration- the evaporation of water from soil and plants together Function of solar radiation, temp, and water availability Much higher in hot areas with abundant rainfall than in areas w/ little precipitation and low temp Potential evapotranspiration- a measure of potential water loss that assumes water is steadily available, determined by amount of solar radiation and temp Species area curve- All other factors being equal, the larger the geographic area of a community, the more species it has, in part because larger areas offer a greater diversity of habitats and microhabitats Two factors that determine the number of species on the island The rate at which new species immigrate to the island Rate at which species become extinct on island Two physical features of the island further affect immigration and extinction rates- Size and the island’s distance from the mainland 41.5 Pathogens alter community Pathogens- disease causing organisms and viruses Pathogens produce especially clear effects on community structure when they are introduced into new habitats Pathogens also influence community structure in terrestrial ecosystems Zoonotic pathogens- pathogens that are transferred to humans from other animals, either through direct contact with an infected animal or by means of a vector Vector- an intermediate species in the process of disease transfer
42- Ecosystems and Energy Ecosystem- the sum of all organisms living in a given area and the abiotic factors they interact with 42.1 Physical Laws First law of thermodynamics- energy cannot be created nor destroyed Second law of thermodynamics- every exchange of energy increase the entropy of the universe Law of conservation of mass- Matter cannot be created nor destroyed Unlike energy, chemical elements are continually recycled within ecosystems Mineral nutrients- essential elements that plants obtain from soil- typically enter as dust or dissolved solutes in rainwater or leached from rocks in the ground Nitrogen is supplied from process called nitrogen fixation Most autotrophs are photosynthetic organisms that use light energy to synthesize sugars and other organic compounds Detritivores aka decomposers- consumers that get their energy from detritus Detritus- nonliving organic material, such as remains of dead organisms, feces, fallen leaves, and wood Two important groups- prokaryotes and fungi They secrete enzymes that digest organic material Then absorb the breakdown products, linking consumers and primary producers 42.2 Energy and other limiting factors Primary production- the amount of light energy converted to chemical energy in the form of organic compounds by autotrophs during a given period of time in an ecosystem Only small amount of sunlight that hits Earth’s surface is actually used in photosynthesis Gross primary production (GPP)- the amount of energy from light or chemicals converted to the chemical energy of organic molecules per unit time Net primary production (NPP)- equal to GPP minus energy used by primary producers for their autotrophic respiration (Ra); can be expressed as energy per unit area per unit time (J/m² *yr) or biomass (mass of vegetation) (g/m² *yr) NPP=GPP-Ra On average NPP is half of GPP Standing crop- total biomass of photosynthetic autotrophs present Net ecosystem production (NEP)- a measure of the total biomass accumulation during said time NPP is amount of new biomass added in a given period of time NEP=GPP-Rt, where Rt is total respiration of all organisms in system, not just primary producers It is useful because its value determines whether an ecosystem is gaining or losing carbon over time About half of solar radiation is absorbed in first 15 meters of water, and in clear water at most 75 meters which makes nutrients very important in deeper water Limiting nutrient- the element that must be added for production to increase Most often nitrogen or phosphorus Typically low in photic zone because rapidly taken up by phytoplankton and detritus tends to sink Upwelling- Areas where deep, nutrient rich waters circulate to the ocean surface Eutrophication- when primary producers die, detritivores can reduce or use up oxygen in the water through decomposition, also reducing clarity of water 42.3 Energy transfer Secondary production- the amount of chemical energy in consumers’ food that is converted to new biomass during a given period of time Production efficiency= net secondary production x 100% / Assimilation of primary production
Production efficiency- the percentage of energy stored in assimilated food that is not used for respiration Trophic efficiency- the percentage of production transferred from one trophic level to the next Must always be less than production efficiencies because they take into account not only energy lost through respiration and contained in feces but also the energy in organic material in a lower trophic level that is not consumed by next trophic level Biomass pyramid- each tier represents the standing crop (dry mass) in one trophic level Some pyramids have more primary consumers than producers because producers are consumed so quickly that they don't have enough time to develop a large population size Turnover time- small standing crop compared to their production Turnover time= standing crop/production 42.4 Biological and geochemical processes Decomposition is controlled by the same factors that limit primary production in ecosystems- Temp, moisture, nutrient availability Decomposition on land is faster than water because bottom sediments are comparable to the detritus layer in terrestrial ecosystems, and aquatic plants usually assimilate nutrients directly from water Biogeochemical cycles- nutrient cycles because they involve both biotic and abiotic factors Global- Gaseous forms of carbon, oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen occur in atmosphere Local- Other elements, including phosphorus, potassium, and calcium are too heavy to occur as gasses at earth’s surface Water cycle Biological importance- essential to all organisms, availability influences the rates of ecosystem processes (primary production and decomposition) Forms available to life- liquid most commonly used, vapor used sometimes, not solid because unusable Reservoirs- the oceans contain 97% of water, 2% in glaciers on ice caps, 1% in lakes, rivers, and groundwater Key processes- evaporation of liquid water by solar energy, condensation of water vapor into clouds, and precipitation.
Carbon cycle Biological importance- carbon forms framework of organic molecules essential to all organisms Forms available to life- photosynthetic organisms utilize CO2 during photosynthesis and convert carbon to organic forms that are used by consumers Reservoirs- major reservoirs of carbon include fossil fuels, soils, the sediments of aquatic ecosystems, and the oceans, plant and animal biomass, and atmosphere Key processes- photosynthesis by plants and phytoplankton removes large amounts of atmospheric CO2 each year Nitrogen cycle Biological importance- nitrogen is part of amino acids, proteins, and nucleic acids and is often a limiting plant nutrient Forms available to life- plants can use two organic forms of nitrogen- ammonium and nitrate- an some organic forms such as amino acids Reservoirs- main reservoir is atmosphere, 80% N2. Other reservoirs are lakes, rivers, and oceans; surface and groundwater, and the biomass of living organisms Key processes- major pathway for nitrogen to enter is via nitrogen fixation Two major contributors are fertilizers and legume crops that fix nitrogen via bacteria in their root nodules Some bacteria carry out denitrification, the reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gases. Other bacteria in soil convert nitrogen to different forms Phosphorus cycle Biological importance- organisms require phosphorus as a major constituent of nucleic acids, phospholipids, and ATP and other energy storing molecules and as a mineral constituent of bones and teeth Forms available to life- most important form is PO4 which is what plants absorb and use in synthesis of organic compounds Reservoirs- largest accumulations are in sedimentary rocks of marine origin, also in soil, oceans, and organisms. Recycling tends to be localized because soil particles bind PO4 Key processes- weathering of rocks gradually adds PO4 to soil Taken up by producers and incorporated into molecules may be eaten by consumers 42.5 Restoration Restoration ecologists work to identify and manipulate the processes that most limit recovery of ecosystems from disturbances Two key biological restoration Bioremediation- Using organisms(usually prokaryotes, fungi, or plants) to detoxify polluted ecosystems Biological Augmentation- Uses organisms to add essential materials to a degraded ecosystem M