I'm drooling over these:
https://www.taydaelectronics.com/electromechanical/switches-key-pad/push-button/red-switch-12x17mm-momentary-spdt-pcb-led-mount.html
And I want to make 5-10 pedals with them in my workshop. Is there a way to make it look clean without outsourcing or spending a tedious amount of time perfecting it?

TLDR: I need cheap a ranging sensor that can detect angles surfaces for a reversing assist system.
Hi guys, 1st year engineering undergraduate year. I'm working on a project to build a reversing assist system for cars.
My requirement is that with 4 sensors, I need to be able to detect objects at least the size of an adult human arm, at a maximum of 1 meter away. It needs to cover the entire rear area of the car up to the points visible through the side mirrors. Also, the sensor can't be too expensive as minimizing costs is a requirement for the project.
My initial plan was to use the JSN - SR04T ultrasonic sensor for the following reasons

• Waterproof
• Good range
• Transducer(JSN-SR04T) separate from module (AJ-SR04M), thus easy to wire

Unfortunately, I've since realized that the sensitivity of the sensor is pretty low. It fails to accurately detect objects which aren't perpendicular to the sensor. I initially thought this was because sound waves were being reflected away from the sensor.
So I looked on the market and found a parking assist kit that used the same transducer I use (JSN-SR04T) The only difference is they don't use the module that comes with the sensor. They instead use their own PCB. This sensor was pretty accurate, and even hooking up just a single transducer, it was able to detect my arm from almost 30 degrees off of it's center line.
To test it out, I connected the transducer that arrived with the kit to the module I had previously bought, and I found that the sensitivity dropped again.
So the issue was with the module. I tried to see if I could tap into the echo signal at the module and calculate the distance myself. Unfortunately I burnt the board in the process. I will try again very soon and update on the results.
So my question is, what can I do here? I've tried the following sensors:

• JSN-SR04T
• HC-SR04 (works and performs the same way as JSN-SR04T)
• SHARP GP2Y0A21YK0F Infrared IR Sensor

None of these are able to detect objects that aren't perpendicular. Do you guys have any suggestions as to what I could do? Or even a different sensor that would meet my requirements? My finals are in 3 weeks and project evaluation in 5, and the entire project has been halted since I can't find a sensor that works. Any help would be greatly appreciated! Thanks.

Hi everyone,
Recently made the jump and added a Dayton BST-1 shaker underneath my NRG bucket seat by simply drilling through and mounting it directly using some M4 bolts. All of this is mounted on my Advanced Sim Racing ASR 3 rig.
I'm powering the BST-1 with a Nobsound 50W x2 amp + sound card combo.
So far so good, I've been able to isolate the vibrations to the seat using these bobbins and placing them inbetween the seat and the frame.
I found frequencies that I can feel and minimize overall noise. I'm running it at about 40% at max on most effects via SimHub and honestly it feels great for me as I'm mainly using it for engine vibration, road impacts and gear shifts (its true that less is more with these) I'm glad I took the time to research and do it right.
Now comes the next part... I'd like to add a secondary shaker to my mount either underneath the pedal plate or behind my brake pedal as I'd like to get the active feeling of ABS engaging. Note that I dont want to make this complicated so I am not looking for a 4 corner solution. I would say a 2 shaker set up for me is 'good enough'
For those of you experienced, a couple questions:

1. For the ABS feeling, would you recommend that I purchase another BST-1 and mount it under my pedal plate or should I go with the smaller Dayton TT25 puck.? I feel like another BST-1 for under the pedal plate may be overkill for what I want but am worried that the TT25 would not be enough?
2. For those of you who have the Nobsound 50W x2 amp + sound card combo could I successfully run 2 BST-1's on that amp if I don't ever intend to run them at full power? Would it make sense for me to run a Dayton TT25 puck with my current BST-1 under the seat without issue?
3. For those of you who have shakers for the pedals, do you recommend just mounting it directly under the pedal plate or behind the brake pedal directly?

Would love to hear opinions!
Thanks,

Hello,
I recently finished my studies during which I did a bunch of DIY audio as a hobby and I always wanted to design my "End-Game" system and feel I now have more time to do so.
I love digital filtering/crossovers as it let me iterate on designs which means I drive each transducer with their individual amp. I wanted to design a modular system where I can try 2, 3 way (and more) without having to redesign everything all the time so I came up with this architecture

• 1 linux streamer with 4 HDMI output (carrying digital audio I2S,5V and I2C). The idea is easily support 2 main speaker + 2 subs.
• Each HDMI is wired to an individual speaker (which can be up to 8-way)
• Each speaker is actively amplified and digitally filtered
• Web-UI to control individually each filter for each driver
• USB microphone input to easily do measurements/sweeps without having an extra computer

Streamer Receiver
Plate DAC/AMP
I would love to get some general feedback, see if people think that's reasonable, especially related to:

• For power amplification I was thinking of TPA3245 for their availability, good performance (on paper) and relatively reasonable price. Any good/bad experience with those from the community ?
• For the DAC I was thinking of using SABRE9006A as a DAC. Any good/bad experience with those from the community ?
• In general is worth/audible to go for better AMP/DACs ICs ? I have means of testing and iterating on the design until I'm close to their performance on paper but I see a lot of people chasing even lower THD numbers. I would feel a bit silly to dump 91$ just on a ES9039SPRO for a difference I wouldn't hear.
• I most of the time don't listen to music very loudly, but still want to sometimes so I want to set a relatively high gain on the AMP. To avoid loosing many bits of precision from the DACS playing very quietly I wanted to do analog volume control instead of digital. I way eying PGA2310 which sounds perfect for my application but is quite pricey. Especially I would need between 1 and 4 per plate amp. Is it worth the money ?
• While I'm technically trained for this, I try to avoid working with mains voltage and would rather skip designing the power supplies myself. Does any one has good recommendations for very clean power supplies that do not charge the audiophile tax ? I will of course add a lot of decoupling but from experience it usually takes a lot of time and effort to clean up crappy power supplies and not worth it.
• Since most PCB house have MOQ, I was wondering what people usually do? Is it common practice to sell the leftovers on Tindie or similar ?

Thanks for the feedback.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XDL4_TIRTu4
The woofer is 3 years old as stated in the video so I don't know if 100 Hours Break In of a Headphone transducer can lead to a difference as big as this. It could be a nice experiment to do. Like measuring Harmonic distortions of various orders from a Breaked In membrane to a stiffenew one. The conclusion of this video shows real electromechanical differences. It's too big to be production variations but the "Fs" has a higher probability to be one, in my very humble opinion.
Edit : Grammar and other corrections

DAY APRIL 7 - 6 2024

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Introduction to PCB Power Relays
As an electronics enthusiast, you may have come across the term “PCB power relay" in your projects or research. But what exactly is a PCB power relay, and how does it work? In this article, we will delve into the world of PCB power relays, exploring their components, design, and most importantly, their function and purpose.

What is a PCB Power Relay?

A PCB power relay, also known as a printed circuit board power relay, is an electromechanical device that allows the control of high-power electrical circuits through low-power signals. It is an essential component in many electronic devices and systems, providing an interface between the control circuit and the load circuit.

The Function and Purpose of a PCB Power Relay

The main function of a PCB power relay is to control the flow of electrical current in a circuit. When a low-power signal, such as a voltage or current, is applied to the relay's coil, it generates a magnetic field that attracts or releases a set of contacts. These contacts, in turn, open or close the circuit, allowing or interrupting the flow of electricity to the load.
The purpose of a PCB power relay varies depending on the application. In some cases, it is used for power switching, where it controls the flow of electricity to devices such as motors, lamps, or heaters. In others, it acts as a protective device, safeguarding the circuit from overloads or short circuits. Power relays are also commonly employed in automation systems, industrial control panels, and telecommunications equipment.

Components and Design of a PCB Power Relay

To understand how a PCB power relay works, it is crucial to familiarize yourself with its components and design. The main elements of a typical PCB power relay include the coil, contacts, and the magnetic system.

The Coil

The coil is the primary component of a PCB power relay responsible for generating the magnetic field. It is usually made of copper wire wound around a bobbin or a magnetic core. The number of turns and the gauge of the wire determine the coil's resistance and the amount of current required to energize the relay.

The Contacts

The contacts of a PCB power relay are the crucial link between the control circuit and the load circuit. They are made of conductive materials, such as silver or gold-plated alloys, to ensure efficient electrical conduction and minimize contact resistance. PCB power relays can have various contact configurations, including single-pole, single-throw (SPST), single-pole, double-throw (SPDT), and double-pole, double-throw (DPDT).

The Magnetic System

The magnetic system of a PCB power relay consists of a ferromagnetic core and an armature. When the coil is energized, the magnetic field created by the coil attracts the armature, which is mechanically linked to the contacts. This attraction causes the contacts to move, either opening or closing the circuit, depending on the relay's design and specifications.

How Does a PCB Power Relay Work?

Now that we have a basic understanding of the components, let's explore how a PCB power relay works in practice. The operation of a PCB power relay can be divided into three main stages: the resting state, the activation state, and the switched state.

Resting State

In the resting state, the relay is not energized, and the contacts are in their default position. Depending on the relay's design, this default position can be either open or closed. For example, in a normally open (NO) relay, the contacts are open in the resting state, while in a normally closed (NC) relay, the contacts are closed.

Activation State

When a voltage or current is applied to the coil, it creates a magnetic field that attracts the armature. This attraction causes the armature to move, which, in turn, moves the contacts. If the relay is normally open, the contacts will close, completing the circuit and allowing the flow of current to the load. Conversely, if the relay is normally closed, the contacts will open, interrupting the circuit.

Switched State

Once the coil is de-energized, the magnetic field dissipates, and the armature returns to its original position due to factors such as spring tension. As a result, the contacts also return to their default position, either open or closed, depending on the design of the relay. This completes the switching action, and the relay is ready for the next cycle.

Advantages and Applications of PCB Power Relays

PCB power relays offer several advantages that make them a popular choice in various applications. One of the key advantages is their ability to handle high-power loads while being controlled by low-power signals. This feature allows for efficient and reliable control of electrical circuits, making PCB power relays indispensable in industries such as manufacturing, automotive, and telecommunications.
Another advantage of PCB power relays is their compact size. Since they are designed to be mounted directly onto printed circuit boards, they occupy minimal space, making them suitable for applications where size constraints are a concern. Additionally, they are relatively easy to install and replace, reducing downtime and maintenance costs in case of failure.
The applications of PCB power relays are wide-ranging. They are commonly used in automotive systems, such as power windows, central locking, and fuel pumps. In industrial settings, they play a vital role in controlling motors, pumps, and solenoids. In the field of telecommunications, PCB power relays are utilized in devices like switches, routers, and modems. These relays also find their place in renewable energy systems, home appliances, and medical equipment.

Understanding Different Types of PCB Power Relays

PCB power relays come in a variety of types, each suitable for specific applications and requirements. The most common types include general-purpose relays, latching relays, solid-state relays, and automotive relays.
General-purpose relays are versatile and can be used in a wide range of applications. They are available in different configurations, contact ratings, and coil voltages, making them suitable for both low-power and high-power switching.
Latching relays, also known as bistable relays, have the ability to maintain their contact position even after the coil is de-energized. They are commonly used in applications where power consumption and heat generation need to be minimized.
Solid-state relays (SSRs) differ from traditional electromechanical relays as they use semiconductor devices and optocouplers to control the switching action. SSRs offer advantages such as silent operation, long lifespan, and fast switching speeds. They are often used in applications where high switching frequency and low power consumption are critical.
Automotive relays are specifically designed to withstand the harsh conditions and high electrical demands of automotive systems. They are frequently used in vehicle lighting, wiper control, and ignition systems.

Choosing the Right PCB Power Relay for Your Application

Selecting the right PCB power relay for your application is crucial to ensure optimal performance and reliability. Several factors should be considered, including contact ratings, coil voltage, switching speed, and environmental conditions.
Firstly, determine the required contact rating, which specifies the maximum current and voltage that the relay can handle. This rating should be compatible with the load circuit's electrical characteristics to prevent damage or failure.
The coil voltage is also an essential parameter to consider. Ensure that the relay's coil voltage matches the voltage available in your control circuit. Operating the relay with a higher or lower coil voltage than specified can lead to improper functioning or complete failure.
The switching speed of a PCB power relay is another critical factor, especially in applications where fast response times are required. Consider the relay's datasheet or technical specifications to determine its switching speed and choose accordingly.
Lastly, take into account the environmental conditions in which the relay will operate. Factors such as temperature, humidity, vibration, and shock can significantly impact the relay's performance and lifespan. Choose a relay that is specifically designed to withstand the environmental conditions of your application.

Leading Manufacturers of PCB Power Relays

When it comes to choosing a reliable PCB power relay, it is essential to consider reputable manufacturers known for their quality and performance. Some of the leading manufacturers in the industry include Omron, TE Connectivity, Panasonic, Siemens, and Schneider Electric.
Omron, for instance, is a renowned manufacturer offering a wide range of PCB power relays suitable for various applications. Their relays are known for their high-quality construction, excellent performance, and long lifespan.
TE Connectivity is another trusted name in the field of PCB power relays. They provide a comprehensive selection of relays, catering to different industries and requirements. Their relays are known for their durability, versatility, and advanced features.
Other notable manufacturers like Panasonic, Siemens, and Schneider Electric also offer a diverse range of high-quality PCB power relays, ensuring reliability and performance in demanding applications.

Conclusion: The Importance of PCB Power Relays in Electronics

In conclusion, PCB power relays play a vital role in the world of electronics, enabling the control of high-power circuits through low-power signals. Understanding their components, design, and operation is essential for anyone working with electronic devices or systems.
By demystifying PCB power relays, we have gained insight into their function, purpose, advantages, and applications. We have explored different types of relays and discussed the factors to consider when choosing the right one for your application. Additionally, we have highlighted leading manufacturers known for their quality and reliability.
Next time you encounter a PCB power relay in your projects, remember its significance in providing efficient and reliable control of electrical circuits. Whether you're working on an industrial automation system, a telecommunications device, or a home appliance, PCB power relays are the unsung heroes ensuring seamless operation and protection of your electronics.

Trying to teach a class of elementary-aged kids about EE. :)
Looking for card games (maybe flash cards but preferably a game) that teach about resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes, LEDs, transistors, crystals and oscillators, electromechanical components like relays and switches, ICs, and connectors, conductive path, source, and load. Bonus for transducer, transmitter cards and functions
TIA friends

In 2022, the global market size for solid-state relays surpassed USD 1 billion, with an estimated substantial Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of approximately 6% projected from 2023 to 2030. The escalating demand for these relays in the electric and electronics sector stands out as a significant driver fueling industry expansion. Moreover, the rising need for digitalization and automation across diverse end-use industries, including consumer electronics and healthcare, is poised to contribute significantly to market growth throughout the forecast period.
To know more about this study, request a free sample report @ https://www.researchcorridor.com/request-sample/?id=11676
Market Trends:
· Industrial Automation Boom: The burgeoning industrial automation sector is a major growth engine for SSRs. Increased adoption of automation robots, CNC machines, and process control systems necessitates reliable and efficient switching solutions, making SSRs ideal choices due to their fast switching speeds, minimal noise interference, and long lifespan.
· Focus on Sustainability and Energy Efficiency: Environmental concerns are prompting a shift towards energy-efficient components. SSRs offer significant advantages over traditional electromechanical relays (EMRs) by minimizing heat generation, reducing power consumption, and improving overall system efficiency, contributing to reduced carbon footprint and lower operational costs.
· Technological Advancements: Continuous advancements in semiconductor technology pave the way for smaller, faster, and more versatile SSRs. Miniaturization allows for higher integration density in compact devices, while innovations like low-loss MOSFETs and improved thermal management enhance efficiency and performance.
· Adoption in Emerging Applications: Beyond traditional industrial automation, SSRs are finding applications in new sectors like electric vehicles, renewable energy systems, medical equipment, and smart homes. Their ability to handle high voltages, currents, and frequencies makes them ideal for diverse applications across various industries.
· Regional Market Dynamics: Asia Pacific dominates the SSR market due to its large industrial base and rapid economic growth. However, Europe and North America hold significant shares with established players and sophisticated applications. Emerging economies like Latin America and Southeast Asia offer promising growth potential.
According to the recent report published by RC Market Analytics, the Global Solid State Relays Market is expected to provide sustainable growth opportunities during the forecast period from 2023 to 2030. This latest industry research study analyzes the solid state relays market by various product segments, applications, regions and countries while assessing regional performances of numerous leading market participants. The report offers a holistic view of the solid state relays industry encompassing numerous stakeholders including raw material suppliers, providers, distributors, consumers and government agencies, among others. Furthermore, the report includes detailed quantitative and qualitative analysis of the global market considering market history, product development, regional dynamics, competitive landscape, and key success factors (KSFs) in the industry.
Browse the Full Report Discretion @ https://www.researchcorridor.com/solid-state-relay-market/
Geographically, the solid state relays market report comprises dedicated sections centering on the regional market revenue and trends. The solid state relays market has been segmented on the basis of geographic regions into North America, Europe, Asia Pacific, Latin America, and the Middle East & Africa. Solid state relays market estimates have also been provided for the historical years 2020 & 2021 along with forecast for the period from 2023 - 2030.The report includes a deep-dive analysis of key countries including the U.S., Canada, the U.K., Germany, France, Italy, China, Japan, India, Australia, Mexico, Brazil and South Africa, among others. Thereby, the report identifies unique growth opportunities across the world based on trends occurring in various developed and developing economies.
The Solid State Relays Market Segmentation:

By Mounting:

• Panel Mount
• PCB Mount
• DIN Rail Mount
• Others

By Output:

• AC Solid State Relay
• DC Solid State Relay
• AC/DC Output Relay

By Current Rating:

• Low (0A–20A)
• Medium (20A–50A)
• High (More than 50A)

By Application:

• Automotive and Transportation
• Energy and Infrastructure
• Industrial OEM
• Building Equipment
• Food and Beverages
• Industrial Automation
• Healthcare

By Region:

• North America
• Europe
• Asia Pacific
• Latin America
• Middle East & Africa

Key players in the global solid state relays market include Rockwell Automation Inc., ABB Ltd., General Electric, Omron Corporation, and Fujitsu Limited. These companies adopt various strategies such as expansion, new investments, service innovations, and collaborations to navigate and establish their presence in markets. A prevalent approach involves venturing into new geographical territories through expansion and acquisitions, aiming to achieve a competitive edge by leveraging joint synergies. This strategic landscape underscores the dynamic efforts of market players to navigate and excel in the solid state relays industry.
To know more about this study, request a free sample report @ https://www.researchcorridor.com/request-sample/?id=11676
Key Questions Answered by Solid State Relays Market Report:

• Product popularity and adoption based on various country-level dynamics
• Regional presence and product development for leading market participants
• Market forecasts and trend analysis based on ongoing investments and economic growth in key countries
• Competitive landscape based on revenue, product offerings, years of presence, number of employees and market concentration, among others
• Various industry models such as SWOT analysis, Pestle Analysis, Porter’s Five Force model, Value Chain Analysis pertaining to Solid State Relays market
• Analysis of the key factors driving and restraining the growth of the global, regional and country-level markets from 2020-2030

About Us: RC Market Analytics is a global market research firm. Our insightful analysis is focused on developed and emerging markets. We identify trends and forecast markets with a view to aid businesses identify market opportunities to optimize strategies. Our expert’s team of analysts’ provides enterprises with strategic insights. RC Market Analytics works to help enterprises grow through strategic insights and actionable solutions. Feel free to contact us for any report customization at sales@researchcorridor.com.
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Company Name: RC Market Analytics Pvt. Ltd. Contact Person: Vijendra Singh Email: sales@researchcorridor.com Visit us: https://www.researchcorridor.com/

Hey guys,
I'm having trouble figuring out what specifications a microchip for my current project needs to be. The application: it sends a digital output to a transistor which acts as a switch to control a DC motor, and also reads a voltage from a pressure transducer and converts the voltage to a pressure value (via code I wrote) and displays it on an LCD.
I think it needs at least 1 digital pin, an analog pin, an SCL pin, and an SDA pin. Must be powered by 5 volts. 8-bit. I'm unsure of what memory needs it has (RAM, EEPROM, ROM, Flash, etc.). The device I'm building is not battery powered, but low power consumption is always nice. Smaller size and surface mounted would also be nice as I'm designing a PCB to go along with it.
​
Does anyone have have any corrects to my conjecture? Or any suggestions for a microcontroller? This works on an Arduino UNO, however I'd like to stay away from ATMEGAs as I don't think they're manufactured anymore. Thanks so much!

Hello, it's your friendly audiophile, back with a new accout since getting permabanned for [REDACTED]. Today I bring you a post detailing the differences between perceived audio quality in vinyl, CDs and WEB music, and if it even matters in the first place.
This post is mainly meant for people who use SoulSeek just to find rare music, but don't really know too much about the technical aspects of recording, mixing, mastering, and listening. Most of the following is sourced from Wikipedia and the Hydrogenaudio Wiki.
Disclosure: I am a digital elitist, I believe not only that with enough effort, any analog sound and signal can be emulated to perfection in a digital enviroment, but also that the digital enviroment is intrinsically better because of efficiency, convenience and versatility. I don't believe you could hear the difference between a vinyl and a digital reproduction of that vinyl, or a guitar plugged into a tube amp and a guitar plugged into an AxeFX emulating that tube amp. With that said, let's get started:
Release media:
These are the media in which a musical work is distributed within. Usually we'll be talking about a vinyl disc, a CD disc, or a WEB release.

• A vinyl disc (also called phonograph record, and LP [long-play], EP [extended-play], or Maxi Single depending on the disc's diameter which depends on the lenght of the recording), is the last standing bastion of analog music recording (not counting cassettes which are for hardcore hipsters, while vinyl is just for normie hipsters). Basically you make some sound by singing or playing an instrument, and right next to you, you put a spinning disc with a viscous substance on it and a needle floating above it. When you make sound, the air waves will push the needle to make grooves in the viscous substance, with the shape of the grooves depending on the frequencies being put out by the sound waves. Later when the viscous substance is solidified, you can spin back the disc at the same speed that it was spun during recording, and use a needle to read the sound waves recorded physically in the disc. The needle will create an electric current using the magic of electromagnets, that gets amplified, goes to a loudspeaker and plays the recorded sounds. Awesome!
  
• A CD (abbreviation of "compact disc", and also for the purposes of this guide, a DVD and Blu-Ray disc), is an optical disc, as in, a disc stores information in the form of physical variations on its surface that can be read with the aid of a beam of light. The LaserDisc, the first implementation of an optical disc, was indeed analog, but for all intents and purposes (specially since LaserDisc lost the format wars and died), optical discs are used to store digital media. Music is recorded by using a diaphragm that converts sound waves into electric pulses (a microphone), and those pulses are converted to 1s and 0s by a computer. You throw these 1s and 0s to a CD and represent them with bumps or pits in the CD. Then shine a laser at it connected to a computer that can tell very small differences in light reflection, and you can tell if the laser is going over a 1 or a 0. Convert those 1s and 0s back to electric pulses, amplify them, send them to a speaker and you're listening to music. Awesome!
  
• WEB just means that the musical work was released on the internet, a necesarily digital platform, and most likely on streaming services like Spotfy, Apple Music/iTunes, YouTube/YouTube Music, Tidal, Deezer, etc. The digital recording was performed in the same manner as for the CD release, but instead of getting thrown into a CD, it got thrown into a bunch of internet servers for your convenient access. Awesome!
  

Ok we get it, music is awesome, and time indeed does pass, and technology indeed gets better, so now we have WEB music, the most convenient way to listen to our favorite artists. What's the big issue? Why are releases differentiated between these? Why do some people only want Vinyl releases, while others want CD or WEB ones with weird numbers in them like 24bit 192khz, while others don't care at all?
Oh sweet summer child, welcome to the earliest discussion topic known to music-kind. It's not "is X rock band pop,", it's not "guitar music is dying", it's not "rap is not music", and it's not "your disgusting romantic style is too convoluted compared to the pinnacle of mid-era baroque". Oh no no no. It's:
Does vinyl actually sound better than digital?
And the answer is both incredibly convoluted and also simpler than you'd think. Let's dive in!
People who swear by the sound of vinyl will call it "better", meaning more natural, less artificial, more true to the original studio recording, more organic, and more dynamic. People also use meta-arguments, often ending up in the romanticization of the concepts of physicality and analog recording, and in the ritual of buying a big, bulky, heavy disc, putting it on a very expensive turn-table and dropping the needle. I'll try not to talk about the meta-arguments at all, and just stick to actual sound-related topics.

• Myth: vinyl has greater resolution than CD because its dynamic range is higher than for CD at the most audible frequencies.

The dynamic range of vinyl, when evaluated as the ratio of a peak sinusoidal amplitude to the peak noise density at that sine wave frequency, is somewhere around 80 dB. Under theoretically ideal conditions, this could perhaps improve to 120 dB. The dynamic range of CDs, when evaluated on a frequency-dependent basis and performed with proper dithering and oversampling, is somewhere around 150 dB. Under no legitimate circumstances will the dynamic range of vinyl ever exceed the dynamic range of CD, under any frequency, given the wide performance gap and the physical limitations of vinyl playback.

• Myth: vinyl requires a better-sounding master because it is physically incapable of reproducing the hypercompressed sound mastered to CD.

Different masters can substantially improve or reduce sound quality. Some have less background noise. Some alter the dynamic range. There are other mastering techniques that can also affect the sound.
There are documented instances of different masters being used on vinyl releases compared to CD releases. One notable example is The White Stripes' Icky Thump. However, there are also instances of the same masters being used on vinyl releases compared to CD releases. In fact, if you purchase an album produced in the last two decades on vinyl, it is likely that the master will be no different than the one used on CD. Alternative masters for vinyl cost money, and mastering is a significant cost of producing a record. The reason for different masters is that producers possibly view digital media (like CD) and analog media (like Vinyl) to be different in nature, so they might produce a different master for each medium. Some even believe that Vinyl will automatically yield a superior sound, despite the well known technical limitations and disadvantages compared to the CD.
The technical details behind this myth are as follows. The cutting heads used for creating the vinyl lacquer (or metal mother) are speaker-like electromechanical devices driven by an extremely powerful amplifier (several hundred watts). At extremely large/fast cutting head excursions, the cutting head coils may physically burn up, much like how a speaker's voice coils may be destroyed by an excessive current. Also, the diamond cutting head stylus may prematurely wear or break. This places important constraints on the maximum levels that can be recorded to a record.
A very high power output is required to cut grooves with a high acceleration. Acceleration at the same signal amplitude is higher for higher-frequency signals. Heavily clipped and limited CDs in the modern mastering style have more high-frequency content than earlier masters. In general, increasing the perceived volume of a record - whether by increasing the recording level or by limiting/clipping/compression - raises the cutting head average power.
Additionally, during playback, the turntable's stylus has limits on what grooves it can successfully track. Cartridges can only track grooves of a finite modulation width (measured in microns) that decreases in frequency. For instance, a cartridge may only be able to track a 300 µm-wide groove at 300 Hz, and yet only 50 µm at 20 kHz. This also places limits on the acceleration and velocity limits the record master can take.
The most obvious way to work around these issues is simply to reduce the recording level of the vinyl master. That's exactly what vinyl mastering houses do, using multiband limiters that dynamically reduce the treble content of the master, to limit the cutting head power usage.

• Myth: effect of vinyl mastering on dynamic range.

It is true that recordings on vinyl sometimes have a spikier waveform and a measurably higher dynamic range than their counterparts on CD, at least when the dynamic range is reported by crude "DR meter" tools that compare peak and RMS levels. The higher "DR value" could indeed be a result of entirely different master recordings being provided to the mastering engineers for each format, or different choices made by the engineers, as happens every time old music is remastered for a new release.
But even when the same source master is used, the audio is normally further processed when mastering for the target format (be it CD or vinyl), and this often results in vinyl having a spikier waveform and higher DR measurement. There are two types of processing during vinyl mastering that can increase the DR measurements and waveform spikiness, thus reducing the RMS and increasing the basic DR measurement by perhaps several dB:

• The audio is subjected to low-pass or all-pass filtering, which can result in broad peaks becoming slanted ramps.
• The amount and stereo separation of deep bass content is reduced for vinyl, to keep the stylus from being thrown out of the groove.

It is quite possible that these changes are entirely inaudible, despite their effect on the waveform shape and DR measurement.
The dynamic range of the waveform is also affected by the vinyl playback system; different systems provide different frequency responses. Factors include cartridge, tonearm, preamp, and even the connecting cables. A vinyl rip with weak bass may well have a higher reported DR value than a rip of the same vinyl on equipment with a stronger bass response.

• Myth: vinyl is better than CD because it reproduces higher frequencies than CD and avoids anti-aliasing filter issues at the frequencies CDs can reproduce.

The recording/tracking ability of vinyl is easily at least 50 kHz depending upon the cartridge and stylus profile, and perhaps as high as 100 kHz. The most notable proof of this is the CD4 quadraphonic system which relied on a 45 kHz bandwidth to be accurately reproduced. That said, the high-frequency response accuracy of vinyl varies tremendously. Amplitude deviations of 5-10 dB or greater are not uncommon in the 20 kHz range for many records, but many records are cut faithfully to the source material and a high quality record player and cartridge combination should have no problems faithfully reproducing the recorded sound.
Playback of ultrasound frequencies is still not guaranteed. Many MM cartridges have resonant peaks defined by the preamp loading, or stylus tip resonances defined by the cantilever, that attenuate high-frequency content, however these issues are minimised with the use of high quality cartridges, and correct capacitive loading of the phono preamp. Moving Coil cartridges are unaffected by capacitive loading due to their design.
When groove wear does occur, it occurs much faster at high frequencies than at low frequencies. For modern styli, this is not as much of a concern and tests demonstrate that a record can be played up to 1000 times before there is any measurable increase in distortion as a result of record wear, although this is unlikely. On every play, there is the potential for damage, as when the stylus forces a grit particle into the vinyl.
Commonly there is audio content up to 23-24 kHz on many vinyl records. Many instruments have overtones up to 100 kHz.
There are rarely, if ever, any ultrasonic frequencies for vinyl to preserve. In audio recordings, such frequencies, when present, are normally low-energy noise imparted by electrical equipment and storage media used during recording, mixing, and mastering. Although some musical instruments can produce low-energy overtones in the ultrasonic range, they could only be on the vinyl if every piece of equipment and storage medium in the recording, mixing, and mastering stages was able to preserve them, which is unlikely even in modern recordings, since the average microphone or mixing console is designed only with audible frequencies in mind. Even if the overtones were preserved all the way to the mastering stage, mono and stereo lacquer cutting equipment typically includes a low-pass filter to avoid overheating the cutting head with ultrasonic frequencies. However, the commonly found audio information up to 23-24 kHz is still present at significant amplitude on many vinyl records.
It is, however, worth mentioning that it's highly unlikely for anyone to actually be able to hear frequencies above 20 kHz, which means that a regular CD covers whole hearable frequency range.

• Myth: vinyl is better than digital because the analog signal on the vinyl tracks the analog signal exactly, while digital is quantized into steps.

Frequency resolution: The Nyquist-Shannon sampling theory states that continuous-time (analog) signals and their corresponding discrete-time (digital) signals are mathematically equivalent representations of any bandwidth-limited signal, provided the sample rate is higher than 2X the bandwidth. All relevant advantages and disadvantages result from implementation details rather than analog versus digital signal representation method. Perhaps the most common method of storing a digital signal is with pulse code modulation (PCM). PCM is used on CDs and DVD-A.
PCM is sometimes characterized as producing a jagged, "stair-step" waveform. This is only partially correct; analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) does indeed use a sample-and-hold circuit to measure an approximate, average amplitude across the duration of the sample, and digital-to-analog conversion (DAC) does the same kind of thing, generating a rectangular-ish waveform, but this output is always then subjected to additional filtering to smooth it out. Effectively, the ADC output sample values are interpreted as a series of points intersected by the waveform; the DAC output is a smooth curve, not a stair-step at all. Additionally, modern ADC and DAC chips are engineered to reduce below the threshold of audibility, if not completely eliminate, any other sources of noise in this conversion process, resulting in an extremely high correlation between the input and output signals.
A related myth is that components of the signal near the Nyquist frequency must be square waves on CD (or digital media), and that vinyl (or any analog media) preserves pure sine waves. The premise is false. A square wave, or any wave that's not a perfect sine wave, is the sum of multiple pure tones (sine waves), by definition. So if you have a pure 22.05 kHz signal on CD (i.e., sample values +n, -n, repeatedly), the DAC may first construct a square wave, but the reconstruction filter then filters out everything above the Nyquist frequency, leaving behind a sine wave. The principle is the same even in complex waveforms. The end result is that the uppermost frequency components on CD are no closer to being square waves than they are on vinyl.
Jitter: Another impact of finite sample rate is the possibility of jitter in the sample clock. If the clock is not exactly on time, the jitter causes distortion, sometimes called "jitter error". Jitter error is unique to digital, and is vanishingly minuscule, a tribute to the many years of effort that went into minimizing it. By the time the earliest CD players came out, distortion produced by jitter was well below the threshold of audibility.
Since it does not use discrete timing steps, analog gear does not have jitter, per se, but wow and flutter—large and small speed variations—occur in all analog gear. The scale of wow and flutter is far greater than that of digital jitter, and is far more likely to produce audible effects.
Time resolution: PCM can encode tiny delays that are actually limited by the bit depth and are far smaller than the time period of a single sample. Time delays of 1µs or less—a tiny fraction of the sample rate—are easily achievable. The theoretical minimum delay is 1 nanosecond or less.
Dynamic range: Another significant impact of finite quantizing resolution is finite dynamic range. As implemented, the bit depth of CD and DVD digital audio formats accommodates a higher dynamic range than vinyl is capable of. The only signal that can exist 'between the bits' of a CD is drowned out by random noise from the vinyl surface grain.
Quantization error: Another possible impact of finite resolution is systematic rounding and truncation error. When making use of the available headroom afforded by 16 bits, the inherent noise from vinyl playback is likely enough to swamp this error to the point that vinyl is already self-dithering. As of yet, no one in the hydrogenaudio community has adequately demonstrated that quantization error arising from 16 bits is high enough to warrant even the use of dither when working with vinyl.
Vinyl is often sourced from digital anyway: Since the mid-1970s, vinyl mastering houses began using digital delay lines instead of analog delays on the signal going to the lathe that cuts the spiral groove. So even in the increasingly unlikely event that 100% of the recording, mixing and mastering was done entirely using analog gear and media, the end of the vinyl mastering process may well have involved a conversion to digital and back.
Further comparisons: Analog encoding has many measurable and audible faults, potentially including harmonic distortion, noise and intermodulation distortion. These distortions have invariably measured higher than for digital formats, including CD.
Tracking error is due to the use of analog encoding with a stylus that contacts the medium, manifesting as distortion and possibly also cyclic wow with subsonic noise if the pressing is off center from the spindle hole. Wow, flutter, footsteps and feedback are other errors due to the transport mechanism and transducers used with vinyl. Digital storage has none of these errors.
In addition to its advantages for audio storage, digital also has advantages for audio production. When a large number of individual audio sources are sampled from source into 24 bits at high sample rate, then digitally processed with effects and mixed into a standard multichannel format, the resulting mix is superior in dynamic range and harmonic distortion to what could be achieved with legacy analog processing and mixing, due to the elimination of thousands of noise-producing and distortion-producing analog components such as potentiometers, resistors, and transistors. Some digital effects such as lossy codec compression to reduce overall bandwidth (thus reducing storage space) without sacrificing psycho-acoustic realism are impossible to implement in analog, and require a digital format anyway.
Audio DVD or A/V Blu-ray medium is used in order to preserve the fidelity and channel grouping of modern multichannel recordings. Audio CD can also be used for such digital mixes, but at lower dynamic range and sample rate, and with only two discrete channels, with no lossy compression to reduce storage space. A third alternative is to rip to data disc and play back on computer via digital bus to a multichannel home theater receiver or equivalent.
In any of these preceding three use cases, digital is superior to analog at both mastering and end-user stages, and represents an advance in the total sound production signal path rather than simply storage improvement.
Layman readable closure:
Vinyl is, technically, in theory and practice, and objectively and scientifically measured, worse in every way when compared to digital sources like CDs or WEB music (lossless or properly transcoded to transparancy). Some people claim that vinyl sounds better. "Sounds" is not an objective term, so these people will not listen to, and don't really care about, scientific arguments. They grew up with, or have a "wrong generation" romanticization of vinyl recordings, or have had one or two bad experiences with bad MP3 encodes or over-compressed nü-metal CDs, and their minds are already made. The final audio quality of both vinyl and digital recods can be affected positively and negatively by production and playback factors that may or may not manifest in different ways in different media, or not appear at all in some versions of an album, while making other versions horrid. In the end, who cares, download your stuff, listen for yourself and enjoy the music, not the format.

I have a background in electronics and I'm pretty good with physics. Calculus was years ago and I don't have a working knowledge. Overall I can read math and make higher level mental models of things.
How do I approach building analogies and multi-domain models for design and simulation? Say electromechanical systems. Something moves, there's a transducer and a control loop. I want to start modeling the whole thing. I've been reading about dimensional analysis, gyrators and different analogies to move between mechanical, magnetic and electronic domains, but there's probably a good way to learn this particular art. Books, lectures, whatever you know that is good, send it my way. This is turning out to be a very deep subject and I've never been taught it during my studies.
Thanks.

My mechanical engineering major friend and I decided to do some cool shit- implement a hybrid hydraulic/regen braking system for ebikes and e-scooters that are using Shimano BH90/BH59 brakes.
Hydraulic brakes are incredibly reliable and well performing, but require maintenance such as rotor bending, replacement rotors and pads, and bleeding (especially if you have hidden teeny tiny leaks).
Regen brakes are great and can even charge your battery back, but on a fresh charge can not work and also just bad to rely upon. The last thing you want to do is rely on a tiny PCB passing high current to stop you from certain death.
Most people do the brake lever for mechanical brakes + extra throttle for regen braking solution, but when you have two brakes and two throttles (maybe one if you combine both rear and front regen), you end up with three or four different brakes you need to control.
I simply wanted FRONT. REAR. Simple, two brakes. My scooter build is currently heavier than myself, so simply relying on mechanical brakes to stop me would not work- I'd burn out pads in weeks. But relying on regen alone? I found myself struggling to stop at 10mph.
Here comes the solution!
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This is where I took my inspiration- the post here is using a 200PSI transducer, with a shimano hydraulic brake lever tapped to 1/8 NPT (irreversible damage).
This design simply turns a hydraulic brake into a regen brake, which wasn't good. It's cool, but not useful. You could easily use a throttle to brake and it'd be cheaper and better.
So... why not use a TEE fitting of some sort to detect a pressure change while leaving the hydraulic brake intact?
After some experimentation, I found out that the shimano hose mounting solution (a hose bolt, barb insert, and olive) is bulletproof, and all I need to do to set that up is extra barbs, olives, hose bolts, and a m8x0.75 tap. This meant we could do some minimal drilling to make a 3 way system that'd allow us to screw in two hoses and 1 1/8 npt pressure transducer.
As the post described potentially damaging the sensor with 200PSI, I decided to use a 1000PSI transducer. Big(or small) mistake- you will find out why later.
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transducer adapter fitting
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Build progress update with new shocks, waiting on new motors to finish
Asides from machine time (free for me) and stock (free), the only other parts (the transducer and cable, and extra hoses) cost me only 50$ extra.
Shimano uses many proprietary parts, which is maybe why noone has done this yet. However, if we can do it in three iterations, more experienced people could do it it one, or even make a kit.
After testing, I'm reading 0.43v (idle) and 0.74v(engaged brake, low temp), and haven't tested for leaks at high temperature yet. (don't see any reason why it should leak.) I am getting perfect braking performance so far, but the scoot itself isn't complete so we have a while to go.
As higher temps would mean more pressure, I'll be setting the throttle to between 0.5v and 0.8v for maximum regen braking. I could get 300PSI or lower transducers... but I simply don't see the point. At this point in the build, if it's holding oil, I'm not touching it. :)
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I'm a computer science uni drop out. Admittedly I wasn't a good student. I had to retake calculus twice, and failed calc 2 once. Dropped to a 2.0 GPA before ultimately dropping out. Prior to that, I did achieve an associates degree in computer information systems from a local community college. The only classes I performed well in were the programming classes.
After dropping out I landed a contractor job at department of defense company as a technician. And honestly it was luck, the recruiter over exaggerated my resume from a warehouse job, which was mainly shipping and packaging using a machine (he exaggerated my machine use). So I had no experience with any of the job responsibilities, but I pulled through and rushed to learn all the necessary technical skills within my first week, thanks to a patient coworker. So with that job I got cable harness building experience and PCB soldering experience. Electromechanical tech was the job title. The inspectors told me my cables were very good, they said I made cables as if I've been doing it for a while.
After the place closed and laid the technicians off, I ended up getting a job at another DoD position as an EM tech again. But this time I was also trained to use a coordinate measuring machine along with GD&T, and with that it started my career in Metrology. Ended up programming on the CMM for aerospace and DoD parts. After 2-3 years I've made about 200+ programs and assisted with multiple DoD engineering projects.
And then here's the big jump. Landed a metrology job for a biotech company in the silicon valley. Nearly double my pay. It's been almost a year but I've been keeping up, but I often feel that imposter syndrome. Everyone I work with has an engineering degree, and the work flow is very fast pace. A lot of my coworkers are surprised I don't have a bachelors. A lot of them were temps while I'm a direct hire, so I'm getting paid a lot more, which is crazy to me since I don't have a bachelors. But the lack of one makes me feel like I have to work harder than everyone else to keep my job. I feel like I always have to prove myself, so I end up working a lot of overtime, even though I'm successfully completing job tasks and developing more programs. The great thing about this job is that i've also learned a ton and added so many skills to my resume, one of those skills I became the best at, which earned me some job security.
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But I just can't shake the feeling that I'm in a temporary peak period, and that I'll eventually fall. I feel like I'll be more secure with a bachelors in engineering.
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