1. Resistors:

Function: Limits current, divides current, creates voltage drops, adjusts voltage.
Variable Parameter: Resistance (R) - measured in Ohms (Ω).
Significance: The higher the resistance value, the lower the current through it, and vice versa.
Construction: A resistive core (carbon, metal, ceramic, etc.) coated with an insulating layer.
Operating Principle: Based on the collision of electrons with atoms in the resistive core, reducing the energy of the electrons and converting it into heat energy.
Applications: Widely used in electronic circuits, from simple to complex circuits. For example: limiting current through LEDs, dividing current in amplifier circuits, creating voltage drops for voltage regulator circuits, adjusting voltage in filter circuits...

2. Capacitors:

Function: Stores electrical energy, filters signals, blocks AC current, passes DC current.
Variable Parameter: Capacitance (C) - measured in Farads (F).
Significance: The higher the capacitance value, the greater the ability to store electrical energy, and vice versa.
Construction: Two parallel metal plates separated by an insulating dielectric (paper, ceramic, mica...).
Operating Principle: When a voltage is applied, an electric field is created between the capacitor plates, charging the capacitor plates. When the power is turned off, the electric field remains and keeps the capacitor plates charged.
Applications: Very diverse in electronic circuits, from power supply filtering to oscillator circuits. For example: filtering power for electronic circuits, generating pulses for oscillator circuits, blocking noise signals...

3. Inductors:

Function: Stores electrical energy in the form of a magnetic field, resists sudden changes in current, creates time delays.
Variable Parameter: Inductance (L) - measured in Henrys (H).
Significance: The higher the inductance value, the greater the resistance to sudden changes in current, and vice versa.
Construction: A coil of conductive wire wrapped around a core (plastic, iron...).
Operating Principle: When current flows through the inductor, a magnetic field is created around it. When the current changes, the magnetic field also changes, generating an induced voltage in the opposite direction of the current, counteracting the sudden change in current.
Applications: Common in power supply filtering, resonant circuits, transformer circuits... For example: filtering power for electronic circuits, generating pulses for oscillator circuits, converting voltage...

4. Diodes:

Function: Allows current to flow in one direction, blocks current in the opposite direction.
Variable Parameter: Threshold voltage (Uf) - measured in Volts (V).
Significance: The higher the threshold voltage, the higher the voltage required for the diode to conduct.
Construction: Two semiconductor layers joined together to form a P-N junction.
Operating Principle: Based on the principle of electron and hole diffusion. When there is a forward voltage, current flows through the diode. When there is a reverse voltage, the current is blocked.
Applications: Widely used in electronic circuits, from rectification circuits to protection circuits. For example: rectifying AC power to DC power, protecting electronic circuits from reverse voltage...

5. Transistors:

Function: Amplifies electrical signals, controls current, switches on and off electrical circuits.
Variable Parameter: Hfe (β) - current gain.
Construction: Three semiconductor layers joined together to form N-P-N or P-N-P.
Operating Principle: Based on the control of current through one semiconductor layer (base) by current in another semiconductor layer (emitter, collector).
Applications: Very diverse in electronic circuits, from audio amplifier circuits to microprocessor circuits...

Integrated Circuits (ICs): Operating Principle

Integrated circuits (ICs), also known as microchips, are assemblies of electronic components interconnected on a small semiconductor substrate. These components can include transistors, resistors, capacitors, diodes, and many other types. ICs are used to perform a wide range of electronic functions, from simple to complex.
The basic operating principle of ICs is to utilize the properties of semiconductor materials to create transistors and other electronic components. These transistors are then interconnected according to pre-designed circuit diagrams to perform the desired functions.
There are two main types of ICs:
Digital ICs: This type of IC uses electronic signals at two voltage levels (usually 0V and 5V) to represent data. Digital ICs are used in electronic devices such as computers, mobile phones, and many other devices.
Analog ICs: This type of IC uses electronic signals that can change continuously to represent data. Analog ICs are used in electronic devices such as audio amplifiers, filters, and other devices.

Essential Circuit Blocks in Integrated Circuits (ICs)

Integrated circuits (ICs), also known as microchips, are the cornerstone of modern electronics. These tiny marvels of engineering pack millions of transistors, resistors, capacitors, and other components onto a single semiconductor substrate, enabling them to perform a vast array of functions. Understanding the fundamental circuit blocks that make up ICs is crucial for comprehending their operation and appreciating their versatility.
1. Amplifier Circuits:
o Function: Amplify electronic signals (voltage or current) to enhance their strength.
o Structure: Comprises transistors, resistors, capacitors, and other components connected in amplifier configurations like BJT amplifiers, FET amplifiers, etc.
o Operating Principle: Utilizes the principle of controlling current through a transistor to modify the voltage or current at the output.
o Applications: Widely used in electronic devices like radios, televisions, computers, etc.
2. Logic Circuits:
o Function: Perform logical operations (AND, OR, NOT, etc.) on electronic signals.
o Structure: Consists of logic gates constructed from transistors, resistors, capacitors, and other components.
o Operating Principle: Employs the principle of switching voltage states (0 or 1) to represent the outcome of a logical operation.
o Applications: Employed to build central processing units (CPUs), control circuitry in electronic devices, etc.
3. Oscillator Circuits:
o Function: Generate electronic signals with a periodic oscillating waveform of specific frequency and amplitude.
o Structure: Comprises transistors, capacitors, resistors, and other components connected in oscillator configurations like LC oscillators, RC oscillators, etc.
o Operating Principle: Relies on the principle of charging and discharging a capacitor coupled with transistor amplification to produce an oscillating signal.
o Applications: Utilized in electronic devices like clocks, radio transmitters, etc.
4. Memory Circuits:
o Function: Store data in the form of electronic signals.
o Structure: Consists of memory cells like flip-flops, SRAM, DRAM, etc.
o Operating Principle: Employs the principle of altering the state of memory cells to retain data.
o Applications: Employed in electronic devices like computers, mobile phones, etc.

5. Pulse Generator Circuits:

· Function: Generate electrical pulses with square, triangular, or other waveform shapes at specific frequencies and amplitudes.
· Structure: Comprises multivibrators, 555 timer ICs, and other components.
· Operating Principle: Utilizes the principle of charging and discharging a capacitor coupled with transistor amplification to produce electrical pulses.
· Applications: Employed in electronic devices like clocks, computers, etc.

6. Filter Circuits:

· Function: Eliminate unwanted components from electronic signals, such as noise, harmonic signals, etc.
· Structure: Consists of inductors, capacitors, resistors, and other components connected in filter configurations like RC filters, LC filters, etc.
· Operating Principle: Relies on the principle of blocking or attenuating components with frequencies different from the desired frequency.
· Applications: Widely used in electronic devices like radios, televisions, computers, etc.

7. Comparator Circuits:

· Function: Compare two electronic signals and generate an output signal indicating which signal is greater, smaller, or equal.
· Structure: Comprises voltage comparators or current comparators constructed from transistors, resistors, capacitors, and other components.
· Operating Principle: Employs the principle of comparing the voltage or current of two input signals to produce an appropriate output signal.
· Applications: Utilized in electronic devices like control circuits, timing circuits, etc.

8. Signal Conversion Circuits:

· Function: Convert electronic signals from one form to another, such as converting analog signals to digital signals and vice versa.
· Structure: Consists of A/D converters, D/A converters, comparators, filters, and other components.
· Operating Principle: Relies on the principle of sampling analog signals, encoding them into digital signals, or decoding digital signals into analog signals.
· Applications: Widely used in electronic devices like computers, mobile phones, etc.

9. Control Circuits:

· Function: Control the operation of other circuits within an IC or an electronic system.
· Structure: Comprises logic gates, flip-flops, counters, decoders, and other components.
· Operating Principle: Employs the principle of processing logic signals to control the state of other circuits.
· Applications: Utilized in most electronic devices.

10. Communication Circuits:

· Function: Enable ICs to communicate with other devices in an electronic system or with users.
· Structure: Consists of communication buses, buffers, communication controllers, and other components.
· Operating Principle: Relies on the principle of transmitting and receiving data between devices.
· Applications: Employed in most electronic devices.

11. Voltage Regulator Circuits:

· Function: Provide a stable voltage supply to other circuits within an IC or an electronic system.
· Structure: Comprises transistors, Zener diodes, resistors, and other components connected in voltage regulator configurations like linear regulators, switching regulators, etc.
· Operating Principle: Utilizes the principle of adjusting the output voltage by modifying the resistance or current through the transistor or Zener diode.
· Applications: Widely used in electronic devices like computers, mobile phones, etc.
These essential circuit blocks form the foundation of ICs, empowering them to perform a vast array of functions that underpin modern electronics. From amplifying signals to processing data and enabling communication, ICs have revolutionized technology and continue to drive innovation across various industries.
Many sources

I have some soldered breadboards that were a part of my project for school that I would like to take home. I am afraid but worried that TSA might take them out of my luggage out of suspicion, or if they’re in my carry on they might not let me take them through. What kinda makes it worse is one of the circuits is a battery powered 130 MHz Colpitts Oscillator so it might look like I’m trying to jam airline communications (obviously I won’t be powering the circuits but I’m just concerned about how it looks).
Anyone have advice on this? Should I put them in my luggage or carry on?

Hello all,
I need a circuit that compares two sine wave frequencies generated using oscillators (for example colpitts oscilator) (minimum 5 Khz and maximum 1Mhz) then output the difference to a buzzer or a speaker to generate the resulted tone.
For example (103 Khz - 100 Khz = 3 Khz) then the result (3 khz) to a speaker. (Generate 3khz sine wave tone).
Thanks

Hi guys, I'm working on an assignment at university in which I have to design a Colpitts oscillator for a frequency of 200MHz using SMD components.
I designed it in LTSpice and it worked, but when I mounted it on the PCB it didn't oscillate. If anyone can tell me the possible errors and how to correct them, it would help a lot.
I used kicad to design the PCB, track width 0.5mm, a fiberlaser printer on FR4 board.
NOTE: In LTSpice the transistor is wrong, in practice a BFR92p was used.
Thanks for your attention.

Bitcoin (BTC) is now facing consolidation ahead of its recent impressive pump. The chart has shown a strong uptrend with higher highs and higher lows in the last few days. The Bitcoin price is however still above the Bollinger Band SMA, which could indicate that the
is currently seeing minor bull activity. The widening of the bands suggests increased market volatility.
The Awesome oscillator has however shifted its histograms from red to green as they decrease in size suggesting a weak bullish trend. Should the AO keep up this trend, a further dip in the short term is likely. The Bitcoin price stood at $66.4K as of press time representing a 0.07% pump in the last 24 hours.
​
https://blockchainreporter.net/daily-market-review-btc-eth-fet-rndr-nea

Hello,
I want to create my own Oscilator I want to replicate something like the picture the sin wave
has freq. 1KHz and an amplitude 60Vp-p it does use a transformer in the output i presume to upconvert the voltage.
Because is very low frequency i can use also opamp.
I was thinking to try phase-shift oscillator or for fun a Colpitts oscillator.
My question is without a transformer how much amplitude can I have from these 2 osc. and if someone knows any reference good a detailed design of Colpitts including what transistor should use.
thank you in advance
https://imgur.com/a/jZOrBMz

Is there a way to create a voltage controlled oscillator that outputs a pure sine wave (with constant amplitude regardless of frequency) that DOES NOT use any special weird parts (like unobtainable ICs from the last century, matched transistor pairs or photoresistors and neon bulbs or things like that)?
I spent some time searching for schematics online but every single one I found uses strange parts that are impossible to get.
I want something like 20Hz to 20kHz output frequency with a control voltage of 0V to 10V.
I know how to create a variable frequency square wave oscillator but won't help here because I don't think there is a way to change a square wave into a sine wave that works over the whole required frequency range (and keeps the amplitude of the output frequency constant regardless of frequency).
Is there a way to solve this problem with just normal parts (opamps, normal BJTs or FETs, diodes, passives, ...)?

I've come across these frequency counters called PLJ-8LED-something, as seen on this video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WWy0821JLUQ My question is what kind of things can probably be done with them or other similar frequency counters. I think they are made for tuning ham radio transmitters. I imagine adding multimeter-style probes or alligator clips to the counter and using it as a generic debugging tool.

• Could it probe the clock signal of a digital circuit and by showing the expected frequency prove the clock generator is working?
• Could it probe and correctly display the intermediate frequency of a radio receiver?
• Could it make for a very simple (maybe not accurate) L/C meter by putting up a Colpitts oscillator with a known capacitor?

At a glance it seems all those could be possible but maybe there is some caveat? The counter itself interfering with the probed circuit? Or it requiring a very strong signal at certain frequencies?

Hi guys, I would like to ask for help with this AM signal generator circuit of mine (see picture attached). My two Colpitts oscillators for the Carrier and Message signals are both working. However, when I attached them to the Balanced Modulator circuit, the output produced was nowhere near an AM-DSBSC signal. Can you help me fix this circuit and if you have other tips for any of the circuits, that would be greatly appreciated. I have also attached a link to the Multisim simulation of the AM signal generator.
Thanks everyone!
Link to Multisim simulation: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1zfStllnbJLyC2hYtr9jEPD97kvaPFScI/view?usp=sharing
​
https://preview.redd.it/3qrjg67r6iec1.png?width=1441&format=png&auto=webp&s=a63524aac4fb2d8d1cf6bf29f099806c078bb73d

I'm sorry if this is a question you get alot :P. I cannot buy any DIY amp kits as the shipping and tax would be monumental and I am opposed to doing so as I feel I'll be missing out on some must-have building knowledge.
I have been studying tube amplifiers religiously for a few weeks now and want to start collecting parts for my first build. I want to go all out with this build. I know many people recommend starting with something small but I feel like I won't feel the drive to build my amp if I am not actively pursuing something I have a deep passion for.
Specifications:

• I am going to add a Model Fet Pre-amp to the amp. I really want it to have the power and heft of a Sunn Amplifier without the added weight.
• It has to be an amp that responds well to pedals. I love messing around with sound to get atypical noises and more experimental playing styles.
• The main quality I'm looking for is Oomph I think. An amp that works well for noise rock, industrial , shoe gaze ; massive walls of sound and effects .
• Is it possible to have this heft on one side while also having an amp with a cleaner tone thats crisp and bright? If not , I'm willing to lean in heavily heavily to the darker tonality I'm looking for.

I gravely apologize if what I'm asking for simply doesn't exist or is super naïve sounding. I'm just tired of studying tube amp theory all day and not getting the opportunity to apply it to a project I'm passionate in. Any and all help is greatly appreciated !
I've been browsing Rob Robinettes website and noticed the load line chart for the Fender AB763 blackface has a tremolo oscillator that uses a 12AX7 that has a pretty large voltage swing. Is this sort amplifier what I'm looking for?

Hello.
.
The commercially available distance measuring RADARs and LIDARs have the price of a kidney. And I want 3 of them. So in order not to kidnap 3 people, I'll make my own.
But I'm stuck right on the beginning: an oscillator.
.
It's exactly like one of those we find on cars: 24GHz, or, the new standard, 77GHz (I prefer the former, since the higher the frequency, the harder antennas seem to be to fabricate).
All circuits on the internet (colpitts and their variaton) seem to be made to no more than 100MHz.
Is there a schematic, or crystal, or I.C., or whatever, that can make a decently strong current in that frequency ? Don't need precision, only stability.
.
And as always, the simpler, the better.
I found this ADF5901, but it doesn't feel right for this project. Plus, I have to buy it, when I have many passive components home. And to buy it, I must find it in the first place, without paying another kidney on the shipping from another country.
.
I skipped the communication classes in the college, so no problem explaining like I'm 5. Learning this area now.
.
Details: the radar is supposed to measure distance in a conic shape (not punctual, like a LASER), and reach around 10 meters. So, if a frequency different that those are important, then I accept.
.
My inspiration was this cheapass device: CDM324
It's a doppler effect sensor, used to detect movement.
The advertisement of the one I bought said it measures distance, but I didn't ask a refund after the disappointment. Also, says the advertisement, that it works at 24GHz.