I'm thinking of a protolang mixing PIE with Proto-Taqva-miir.
PIE Consonants: m, n, p, b, bʰ, t, d, dʰ, kʲ, gʲ, gʲʰ, k, g, gʰ, kʷ, gʷ, gʷʰ, s, h1, h2, h3, r, l, j, w
Proto-Taqva-miir Consonants: m, n, ɲ, b, t, tʼ, d, c, cʼ, ɟ, k, kʼ, g, q, qʼ, ɢ, ʔ, s, z, ɕ, ʑ, ç, ʝ, x, ɣ, ħ, ʕ, h, r, l, ʎ, j, w
PIE Vowels: e, eː, o, oː(Though a, aː, i, iː, u, uː might've also existed with them.)
Proto-Taqva-miir Vowels: a, aː, i, iː, u, uː
For the consonants, I added the two amounts from each language, then divided by two, meaning that 29 consonants should be the amount for this protolang. Matching them, I could add whatever consonants from each set correspond the most neatly with whatever consonants from the other. PIE's syllable structure was (C)CVC(C), which allowed nasals and liquids in the nucleus alongside the vowels. PTM's structure was (C)V(R), meaning that only nasals and liquids, grouped as resonants, can end syllables and words. In terms of stress, PIE used a pitch accent, while PTM's stress system was the same as Finnish at first, with stress falling on the first syllable all the time, with the modern language's system being the same as Latin, meaning that stress falls on the third-to-last syllable by default, with the second-to-last one being stressed instead as long as it contains a long vowel or is closed.
For syntax, PIE word order is debated. Mixing the two hypotheses could lead to PIE having used a free word order still classified as strictly subject initial. PTM would utilize SOV as the word order, utilizing postpositions derived from verbs. PIE used prepositions, and adjectives before nouns, while PTM's adjectives are also derived from nouns. In terms of grammar, both PIE and PTM were going to share the same grammatical number system: singular, dual, and plural, though PTM, in the end, used singular and plural, which evolved into a singulative/dual/plural system with an inverse marker. I'm considering this mixture using an inverse marker alongside singular, dual, and plural markings.
Regarding the tense systems, PIE is said to have two tenses: past and present. It might've used an auxiliary as an indicator of the future tense. It also used three aspects: imperfective ("present"), perfective ("aorist"), and stative ("perfect"). There were also four moods, or five: indicative, subjunctive, optative, and imperative. An injunctive mood might've also been possible. PTM utilized an unmarked imperfective, a marked perfective via reduplication, and an infinitive. Reduplication plus the [i] vowel was used for the perfective converb, and an -in suffix was used for the imperfective converb, the -su suffix marking the infinitive. The standard copula, derived from "live", and the locative copula, derived from "stand", would be utilized to create a new tense system:

1. Imperfect + Standard Copula = Continuous
2. Perfect + Standard Copula = Past Continuous
3. Imperfect + Locative Copula = Future
4. Perfect + Locative Copula = Future in the Past

(A negative copula was also used.)
PIE only utilized one copula: h1es-. They might've also used others like the following: bʰuh₂-(maybe "grow" and "become"), h2wes-(maybe "live"), h1er-, and (s)teh2-("stand").
Regarding valency-changing operations, PIE is said only to use a causative, while PTM utilizes a mediopassive derived from "take/get" and a causative/commitative derived from "lead". At least that was the original plan. The modern form uses the following operations: detransitive, causative, reflexive, reciprocal, mediopassive (detransitive + Dative), and antipassive (detransitive + Genitive). And via morphology.
And speaking of morphology and synthesis, while Proto-Taqva-miir is somewhat agglutinative, the eventual modern language being fusional, PIE was fusional. At least I think so, though I need better clarity. PIE lacks a dominant order regarding comparatives(superlatives, sublatives, etc.). However, PTM utilized auxiliaries and later a morphological system to indicate everything: comparative, superlative, sublative, intensive, excessive, equative, and contrastive. Unfortunately, there is no paucative marking as far as I'm aware. I'd need to look at the other Conlang Case Study videos. Let me make a list, and I keep the following distinct and antonymous with augmentatives and diminutives, which relate to size descriptions of nouns unrelated to other nouns.
Comparative: ???
Superlative: highest degree
Sublative: lowest degree
Equative: equal value
Contrastive: different value
Intensive: stronger
Excessive: too much of something
???: weaker
Paucative: too few of something
What is supposed to go where the triple question marks are? I'd like to know. Here's a bonus question: Which of these have been reconstructed and are theorized to have existed in Proto-Indo-European?
I'm also thinking of looking into the question words of PIE, and seeing what I should do from there, as Biblaridion is thinking of auxiliary question words like "what+thing", "what+place", "what+person", etc. And I have ideas for the languages it could split into. It's for a hypothetical(either actual or fictional) D&D campaign.

I have said that Heimdallr has no certain etymology for -dallr, but since heim- is certain, “lord of the world” is a possibility that arises from seeing that metathesis of *mw (since Pw is usually not allowed in IE) might exist in a sequence :
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*xaimi-walda-z > *xaim-walda-z > *xaim-dalwa-z > ON Heimdallr
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with the same optional changes to *lw in Latin :
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*solwo- > L. salvus ‘unharmed/safe/sound’, OL sollus, Skt. sárva- ‘whole/all’
*palwo- / *pelwo- > OE f(e)alo ‘yellow’, Li. palvas ‘light yellow (reddish/brownish)’, L. fulvus ‘deep yellow / gold’
*pal(i)wo- / *pel(i)wo- / *pol(i)wo- > G. poliós ‘grey’, peliós ‘livid’, pellós ‘dark’, L. pullus ‘dark’, pallidus ‘pale’
*mulwo- > Li. mulvas ‘reddish / yellowish’, L. mullus ‘red mullet’, mulleus ‘reddish/purple shoe worn by 3 highest magistrates’
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which might be related to optional alternation of Gmc. *gW / *gw / *w, since the same in :
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*dwi-dhogWhlo- ‘half-light’ > OIr. dedól ‘dawn/twilight’
*dhogWhlo- > *dalwa- > *dall-inga-z > Dellingr ‘god of dawn?’
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Now, new evidence of this has come to my knowledge, showing that Gmc. *dalwa-z did exist. Crimean Gothic Ingdolou, with the odd cluster -ngd-, must be a compound. Since the name Ing is well-established in Gmc., no other reasonable optiona exists. Since Ing was also called *Frauja-z ( > Freyr ) ‘lord’, a name ‘Lord Ing’ seems to fit. Since *-wV became -w (pronounced -u after consonants) in Gothic, the same (with metathesis of *ww like *mw) in :
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*ingwa-walda- > *ingw-walda- > *ingw-dalwa- > *ingw-dalw > *ingw-dalu > Ingdolou
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This is presumably the vocative form, with *a > o (as in others, dorbiza ~ þarba, hoem- ~ *xaim-) and ou used for [u] (the writer was Flemish). This much metathesis, seen twice, is much less than needed in other words of certain meaning :
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Go. ga-hveitjan ‘to whiten’, Crim. *ga-xwit-ta- ‘whitened’ > wixtgata = vvichtgata ‘white’
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Crimean Gothic already shows some changes that might make it impossible to be directly derived from Gothic (see likely *-amiz > *-ems > -emsch below). That they retained the name of a prominent Gmc. god, toasted to him and asked for his protection, makes it likely they were a group of non-Christianized Goths (at the time of the Christianization of most Goths; their later history unknown).
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The name Ingdolou is seen in the drinking song :
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Wara Wara ingdolou / Seu te gira Galizou / Hoemisclep dorbi za ea
Wara Wara ingdolou / Sen te gira Galizou / Hoemis clep dorbiza es (word boundaries, 2 errors due to poor printing or other mistakes)
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guard (us), guard (us), Lord Ing; without you, hunger grows, and the village food is less
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Hoemis ‘of the village’, Gmc. gen. *xaimisa
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es ‘is’ < *isti < *Hesti
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sen, L. sine ‘without’
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te < PIE *t(w)e(H), here -te / *-þe is probably the clitic for all cases of ‘thou’, with n-þ > n-t (similar to OE)
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Galiz-ou, Go. -uh ‘and’
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Galiz-ou, Go. ga-lisan ‘gather / collect’ ( > accumulate / increase / grow )
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dorbiza ‘more lacking / less’, Go. þarba ‘lack / need’, þarbs ‘needy / necessary’
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clep < *xlep < Gmc. *xlaiba- ‘bread’, Go. hlaib-
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wara ‘guard / protect’, ward- (rd > r like -d > 0 as in broe ‘bread’)
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gira < *girdag, Go. grédags ‘hungry’, grédus ‘hunger / greed’ (rd > r like -d > 0 as in broe ‘bread’)
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This song has been considered untranslatable, not Gmc., or even Turkic. Its nature is very clear, and only by ignoring sound changes from obvious cognates (-d > 0 as in broe ‘bread’) and emending them into nonexistence (Stearns 1978) have the other cognates that also lost *d been left unseen. Since so many Crimean Gothic words are almost exactly like other Gmc. cognates, the trouble linguists have had finding any matches for the words in this song must show that some sound changes existed but were ignored. In the same way, the toast :
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kilemschkop ‘drain the cup’ < *kwilami(z) (sa(n)) kupan ‘let’s down/finish (this) cup’ (*gWelH- > Gmc. *kwil- ‘die / end / fall / set’)
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seems to show that *s > š by C (*windaz > wintch ‘wind’, schvvester ‘sister’) either applies to *-miz > *-ms > msch or that *so > *sa became a clitic s- before words (with analogy, since *t- existed in non-nominative forms; compare likely analogy in -te above). Some analysis is made less precise since many sounds seem to be in the process of devoicing (*wira-z ‘man’ > fers), but many old languages show irregular variation (or due to dialects), so this is not a reason to give up and say it’s impossible from the start. Without taking the evidence as primary, and undestanding which sound changes to apply, no progress can be made. Manaster Ramer’s (2024) refusal to even see -kop as ‘cup’ when the translation is so clear makes little sense, and only continues a lack of reasonable analysis of even slightly difficult Crimean Gothic words.
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Busbecq, A. G. (printed 1740, 1995, 2000)
http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/texte/etcs/germ/got/krimgot/krimg.htm
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Manaster Ramer, Alexis (2024, 2nd draft) Bay Mir Zestu Oys Vi a Germanishe: Crimean Gothic Connected Speech (A Toast and A Drinking Song)
https://www.academia.edu/119269732
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Stearns, MacDonald (1978) Crimean gothic : analysis and etymology of the corpus
https://archive.org/details/crimeangothicana0000stea
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Whalen, Sean (2023) Latin lūculentus, opulentus, violent-, vehement-
https://www.reddit.com/etymology/comments/zzfsx3/latin_l%C5%ABculentus_opulentus_violent_vehement/
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Hamp’s theory that *wik^- > z- in Albanian has been challenged as unlikely phonetically. I do not feel that such considerations are important, since out of the thousands of sound changes needed throughout the world, at least some would look odd. Instead, I disagree with it due to other etymologies and sound changes that explain the data better.
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1. zog

Hamp’s *wik^e-gWo- > zog has no basis in comparative data. Instead, since *g^(h)w and *g^(h)y > z, metathesis in *g^haH2ghw- > *g^wa:g > zog :
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*g^haH2ghu- > Arm. jag -u- ‘youngling / nestling / little bird / sparrow’, *g^wa:g > Alb. zog ‘young animal / nestling / bird / son’, Sog. zāγ ‘kind of bird’, NP zâγ / zâq ‘child / offspring’
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Also, the similarity of *g^haH2ghu- to Skt. jahu- ‘young animal’ could be explained if *H2 were velar or uvular (Weiss 2016, Whalen 2024a) and caused optional assimilation of *g^haRg^hu-> *g^haRghu- outside of Skt. (which lost *-H2-). H-loss does not seem regular, but if one is desperate for regularity maybe there was optional dissimilation of *gh-gh > *g(h)-g(h) in both directions before regular *g-gh, etc., became standard, with *-Hg- > *-g- (Lubotsky 1981). Otherwise, if *-gh- was original, optional assimilation of *gh() in *g^haRghu-> *g^haRg^hu- for Skt. (similar to *s-ś > ś-ś in *smamk^ru- > *sma(m)k^ur- > Hittite zma(n)kur ‘beard’, šmankur-want- ‘bearded’; *smak^ru- > Sanskrit śmáśru-; etc.).
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1. -zet

*widk^mti- > *vinćati- > Skt. viṃśatí-, Iran. *vinsati > Os. insäj, G. Dor. wikati, Pamphylian phíkati, Alb. një-zet, Arm. k’san ‘20’
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This word already has several oddities, so looking for regularity here seems suspect. Since it seems to contain *dwi-dek^mt ‘two tens’ > *(d)widk^mt-, *wik^- > z- in Albanian might not be possible anyway, even if other examples proved true. Of course, since it only appears in compounds (një-zet ‘20’, dy-zet ‘40’), there’s no reason to think initial *wi()k^- was the source at all. Loss of -V- in long words could be the cause. Thus, *-dk^- > *-dg^- > *-g^- might be possible, and only in compounds like *oino-widk^ati > *onyo-w(i)g^ati > *onyo-dg^wati, etc., did the loss of *-i- allow metathesis of *-wg^- > *-g^w-.
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1. zot

For *zo:tin > zot ‘lord’, *zo:tni: > zonjë / zojë ‘lady’, a source in *poti- > Skt. páti- ‘master / husband’ seems clear, but Hamp’s connection to *wik^-poti- (Skt. viśpáti- ‘master’) has problems. I do not see any reason to believe analogical **wik^-aH-poti- ever existed in Alb. (to explain -o- by *āpo > *ābo > *āo > *ā > o). If the etymology requires an unmotivated affix within the word, not seen in any cognates, it should be rejected. Instead, since Alb. is often similar to Greek, despótēs and fem. déspoina (Skt. dámpati-s, PIE *dems-poti- ‘master of the house’) makes more sense. Not only does Greek also have optional z- here (G. pédon ‘ground’, dápedon / zápedon ‘floor / ground’) for *dem(H2)- ‘house’, but Bithynian might show the same in G. despótēs : Bi. Ziboítēs \ Tiboítēs \ Zeipoítēs ‘a king’. That a cluster *-msp- could become -b- in Bi. means that it could in Alb. as well (no other ex.), so :
*dems-potin- > *de:z-potin > *de:z-botin > *de:botin > *de:otin > *de:tin > *zo:tin > zot
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A change of *d > *z > s (based on accent) might also exist in (Whalen 2024c) :
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*sweidro- / *swi:dro-? ‘sweat’ > G. hīdrṓs, Arm. k’irtn
*swi:zro- > Skt. kṣīrá-m ‘milk’, *swi:rso- > Alb. dirsë / djersë ‘sweat’
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*bhlaido- ‘pallid / ill’ > Slavic *ble:do-, OE blát, Alb. *blaisuro- > blehurë ‘pale’
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Still more words show optional d(h) / z in the area. Ex.:
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G. pédon ‘ground’, dápedon / zápedon ‘flooground’
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*d(e)mbh- > Skt. da(m)bh- ‘slay / destroy’, G. záphelos ‘violent’
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*dlegWro- ‘naked’ >>
*dlegWor- > *ðlaγar- > Pashto laγaṛ ‘naked / bare’
*dlogWor- > *tlukWor- > EArm. tklor
*dlugWro- > G. zágros ‘barefoot’
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G. dágklon / zágklon ‘sickle’ (likely a loan)
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G. dérma ‘skin’, Th. zalmós, Ebro-zelmis \ Diza-zelmis “(having a) goat-skin”
G. dorā́ ‘skin’, *derha > Arm. teṙ ‘veil / coat’, Th. z(e)irá ‘kind of upper garment / cloak’
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*H2azd- > G. áz[d]ō ‘dry up’, Arm. azazem ‘dry’
(*zd > *zz > z is not regular, see *nizdó- > E. nest, Arm. nist ‘site/dwelling’, *dorusdo- ‘thrush’ > *dorzdo- > *dorðo- > Arm. tordik)
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*H1leudh- > Arm. eluzumn ‘sprout’, (compare elust ‘growing of plants’), mard-eloyz ‘man-kidnapper’
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*(s)kewdh- > OE hýdan, E, hide, G. keúthō ‘covehide’, Arm. suzem ‘immerse’
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*samHdho- > E. sand, G. (ps)ámathos, Arm. awaz, L. sabulum
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*widh- > L. dīvidere ‘separate’, *weidho-? > Arm. gēz ‘fissure/cut’
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*H1edh-? > OCS jed-inŭ, MArm. ez ‘one’
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Skt. vrādh- ‘be proud / boast’, Av. urvādah- ‘*pride / *entertainment > joy / bliss’
Av. urvāz- ‘be proud / entertain’
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Skt. khād- ‘chew/bite/eat’, khādá- ‘food’
Pth. xāz- ‘devour’, *xāza- > Kho. khāysa- ‘food’
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*swaH2du- > Skt. svādú- ‘sweet’
*sH2aldu- > Li. saldùs ‘sweet’ ( E. salt, Arm. ał )
*swaldu(r)- > *xwaldur > *xwałtür > Arm. k’ałc’r ‘sweet’
*xwald- > *xwalz- > Av. xVarǝzišta- ‘sweetest’
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One cause of this might be when metathesis created *dH- > *zH- > z-. If PIE *demH2s-poti- became *dH2ems-poti-, only oddities like d- > z- would give evidence for it. If so, the same for *Hd- > *dH- > *z- in
*H1dntyo- > Arm. *dH- > *zantyo > *žanyo > žani ‘tusk’
with assimilation of *S-y > ž-y, as in *sm(e)id-ye- ‘smile, laugh’ > Greek meidiáō, Arm. žpit ‘smile’, žptim / žmtim ‘I smile’ (Whalen 2024d). That *C-y was affected by change-at-a-distance also shown by :
*g^hrzdhyo- > *γ^arzðyo- > *γarðyo- > Arm. gari ‘barley’
in which no *g^ > j occurred due to dissimilation of palatals.
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For *zo:tin > zot , *zo:tni: > zonjë, the -n- in the masc. seems to show that PIE *potin- ‘lord’, fem. *potin-H2- > *potniH2 existed. This would match *swe-k^uro- > Sanskrit śváśura- ‘father-in-law’, fem. *swe-k^ur-H2- > *swek^ruH2- ‘mother-in-law’. If so, it would be evidence that i-stems could come from *-in-, nom. *-in > *-ir. Thus, Arm. u-stems in *-ur > -r retain an old IE feature (Whalen 2024b), and pl. *-un-es- > -un-k’ would also be old (*bhrg^hu(n)- ‘high’ > barjr, gen. barju, pl. barjunk’). Armenian neuter *-ur > -r also appear as -u in Greek but -ū in Latin, possibly showing a uvular *R that disappeared in most, but lengthened the *u in *-uR in Latin with the loss of a mora. More complex origins, like *-urx^o- > *-uRH1 > *-ur / *-u(H1), are also possible. It would need to be optional, since Nikolaev relates Latin femur ‘thigh’ to Greek thamús ‘thick’ (2010: 62, also citing Nussbaum in fn 27).
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Hamp, Eric P. (1997) A Far-Out Equation
Indo-European, Nostratic and Beyond: Festschrift for V.V. Shevoroshkin
https://www.academia.edu/2304575
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Lubotsky, Alexander (1981) Gr. pḗgnumi : Skt. pajrá- and loss of laryngeals before mediae in Indo-Iranian
https://www.academia.edu/428966
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Martirosyan, Hrach (2009) Etymological Dictionary of the Armenian Inherited Lexicon
https://www.academia.edu/46614724
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Nikolaev, Alexander (2010) Issledovanija po praindoevropejskoj imennoj morphologii [Studies in Indo-European Nominal Morphology]
https://www.academia.edu/396023
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Weiss, Michael (2016) The Proto-Indo-European Laryngeals and the Name of Cilicia in the Iron Age
https://www.academia.edu/28412793
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Whalen, Sean (2024a) Greek Uvular R / q, ks > xs / kx / kR, k / x > k / kh / r, Hk > H / k / kh (Draft)
https://www.academia.edu/115369292
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Whalen, Sean (2024b) The Thick Thigh Theory
https://www.academia.edu/117080171
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Whalen, Sean (2024c) Greek Variation of l / d / th / z, z / y / l, d / b in Context with Indo-European r / l / d(h) / z, d(h) / b(h) (Draft)
https://www.academia.edu/114443926
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Whalen, Sean (2024d) A To Ž: Latin Ambi-, Am ‘Around’, Armenian Žptim / Žmtim ‘I Smile’, Žołovurd ‘Multitude’; CiV > CyV; Ciy, Cvy > Cy
https://www.academia.edu/114189609
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I came across this interesting tidbit (at least to me), not sure what qualifies as "informative" per sub rules, so sorry if this isnt that.
Well (adv): "in a satisfactory manner," Old English wel "abundantly, very, very much; indeed, to be sure; with good reason; nearly, for the most part," from Proto-Germanic *wel- (source also of Old Saxon wela, Old Norse vel, Old Frisian wel, Dutch wel, Old High German wela, German wohl, Gothic waila "well"), from PIE root *wel- (2) "to wish, will" (source also of Sanskrit prati varam "at will," Old Church Slavonic vole "well," Welsh gwell "better," Latin velle "to wish, will," Old English willan "to wish;"
Well(n): "hole dug for water, spring of water," Old English wielle (West Saxon), welle (Anglian) "spring of water, fountain," from wiellan (see well (v.)).
Well(v):"to spring, rise, gush," Old English wiellan (Anglian wællan), causative of weallan "to boil, bubble up, rise (in reference to a river)" (class VII strong verb; past tense weoll, past participle weallen), from Proto-Germanic *wellanan "to roll" (source also of Old Saxon wallan, Old Norse vella, Old Frisian walla, Old High German wallan, German wallen, Gothic wulan "to bubble, boil"), from PIE root *wel- (3) "to turn, revolve," on notion of "roiling or bubbling water."
Wish (v): Old English wyscan "to wish, cherish a desire," from Proto-Germanic *wunsk- (source also of Old Norse œskja, Danish ønske, Swedish önska, Middle Dutch wonscen, Dutch wensen, Old High German wunsken, German wunschen "to wish"), from PIE root *wen- (1) "to desire, strive for." Related: Wished; wishing. Wishing well as an enchanted water hole attested by 1819.
Wish(n): early 14c., "act of wishing," also "what one wishes for," from wish (v.). Cognate with Old Norse osk, Middle Dutch wonsc, Dutch wens, Old High German wunsc, German Wunsch "a wish." Wish fulfillment (1901) translates German wunscherfüllung (Freud, "Die Traumdeutung," 1900). also from early 14c.
So i suppose what i think is neat here is the PIE root for well (adv) meant wish, and the PIE root for wish (v) was a completely different root. Also that all meanings of well seem to dance around some very similar roots without ever actually sharing one in particular.
Tangential side note: Well is interesting by itself because i realized its one of a few words you can input a pretty wide variety of meanings onto just by inflection almost like an expletive or intensifier. Depending on the way it's spoken it can mean; OK, moving on!/ Wait a minute/alright/ Good/ see?/see/here's the truth after all (well, well, well)/healthy/and then obviously a hole in the ground to get wate there are probably others that i'm not thinking of. To degree we can do this with any word but most aren't this flexible. My pet theory is the more you can do this to a word the longer we as a species have been using some form of that word, not sure how true that is, maybe someone here will know.

abandon, ability, able, about, above, absence, absolute, absolutely, abstract, abundance, academy, accent, accept, access, accident, accompany, accomplish, according, account, accurate, achieve, achievement, acid, acknowledge, acquire, across, action, active, activity, actor, actual, actually, adapt, addition, additional, address, adequate, adjust, administration, admire, admission, admit, adolescent, adopt, adult, advance, advantage, adventure, advertise, advice, advise, adviser, advocate, affair, affect, afford, afraid, after, afternoon, again, against, age, agency, agenda, agent, aggressive, ago, agree, agreement, agriculture, ahead, aid, aim, air, aircraft, airline, airport, alarm, album, alcohol, alive, all, alliance, allow, ally, almost, alone, along, already, also, alter, alternative, although, always, amateur, amazing, ambition, ambulance, among, amount, analysis, analyst, analyze, ancient, and, anger, angle, angry, animal, anniversary, announce, annual, another, answer, anticipate, anxiety, any, anybody, anymore, anyone, anything, anyway, anywhere, apart, apartment, apologize, apparent, apparently, appeal, appear, appearance, apple, application, apply, appoint, appointment, appreciate, approach, appropriate, approval, approve, approximately, architect, area, argue, argument, arise, arm, armed, army, around, arrange, arrangement, arrest, arrival, arrive, art, article, artist, artistic, as, ashamed, aside, ask, asleep, aspect, assault, assert, assess, assessment, asset, assign, assignment, assist, assistance, assistant, associate, association, assume, assumption, assure, at, athlete, athletic, atmosphere, attach, attack, attempt, attend, attention, attitude, attorney, attract, attraction, attractive, attribute, audience, author, authority, auto, available, average, avoid, award, aware, awareness, away, awful, baby, back, background, bad, badly, bag, balance, ball, ban, band, bank, bar, barely, barrel, barrier, base, baseball, basic, basically, basis, basket, basketball, bath, bathroom, battery, battle, be, beach, bear, beat, beautiful, beauty, because, become, bed, bedroom, bee, beef, beer, before, begin, beginning, behavior, behind, being, belief, believe, bell, belong, below, belt, bench, bend, beneath, benefit, beside, besides, best, bet, better, between, beyond, bicycle, big, bike, bill, billion, bind, biological, bird, birth, birthday, bit, bite, black, blade, blame, blanket, blind, block, blood, blow, blue, board, boat, body, bomb, bombing, bond, bone, book, boom, boot, border, boring, born, borrow, boss, both, bother, bottle, bottom, boundary, bowl, box, boy, boyfriend, brain, branch, brand, brave, bread, break, breakfast, breast, breath, breathe, brick, bridge, brief, briefly, bright, brilliant, bring, broad, broken, brother, brown, brush, buck, budget, build, building, bullet, bunch, burden, burn, bury, bus, business, busy, but, butter, button, buy, buyer, by, cabin, cabinet, cable, cake, calculate, call, camera, camp, campaign, campus, can, Canadian, cancer, candidate, cap, capability, capable, capacity, capital, captain, capture, car, carbon, card, care, career, careful, carefully, carrier, carry, case, cash, cast, cat, catch, category, Catholic, cause, ceiling, celebrate, celebration, celebrity, cell, center, central, century, CEO, ceremony, certain, certainly, chain, chair, chairman, challenge, chamber, champion, championship, chance, change, changing, channel, chapter, character, characteristic, characterize, charge, charity, chart, chase, cheap, check, cheek, cheese, chef, chemical, chest, chicken, chief, child, childhood, Chinese, chip, chocolate, choice, cholesterol, choose, Christian, Christmas, church, cigarette, circle, circumstance, cite, citizen, city, civil, civilian, claim, class, classic, classroom, clean, clear, clearly, client, climate, climb, clinic, clinical, clock, close, closely, closer, clothes, clothing, cloud, club, clue, cluster, coach, coal, coalition, coast, coat, code, coffee, cognitive, cold, collapse, colleague, collect, collection, collective, college, colonial, color, column, combination, combine, come, comedy, comfort, comfortable, command, commander, comment, commercial, commission, commit, commitment, committee, common, communicate, communication, community, company, compare, comparison, compete, competition, competitive, competitor, complain, complaint, complete, completely, complex, complexity, compliance, complicate, complicated, component, compose, composition, comprehensive, computer, concentrate, concentration, concept, concern, concerned, concert, conclude, conclusion, concrete, condition, conduct, conference, confidence, confident, confirm, conflict, confront, confusion, Congress, congressional, connect, connection, consciousness, consensus, consequence, conservative, consider, considerable, consideration, consist, consistent, constant, constantly, constitute, constitutional, construct, construction, consultant, consume, consumer, 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decline, decrease, deep, deeply, deer, defeat, defend, defendant, defense, defensive, deficit, define, definitely, definition, degree, delay, deliver, delivery, demand, democracy, Democratic, Democrat, demonstrate, demonstration, deny, department, depend, dependent, depending, depict, depression, depth, deputy, derive, describe, description, desert, deserve, design, designer, desire, desk, desperate, despite, destroy, destruction, detail, detailed, detect, detection, detective, determine, develop, developing, development, device, devil, dialogue, diet, differ, difference, different, differently, difficult, difficulty, dig, digital, dimension, dining, dinner, direct, direction, directly, director, dirt, disability, disagree, disappear, disaster, discipline, disclose, discover, discovery, discrimination, discuss, discussion, disease, dish, dismiss, disorder, display, dispute, distance, distinct, distinction, distinguish, distribute, distribution, district, diverse, diversity, divide, division, divorce, DNA, do, doctor, document, dog, domestic, dominant, dominate, door, double, doubt, down, downtown, dozen, draft, drag, drama, dramatic, dramatically, draw, drawer, drawing, dream, dress, drink, drive, driver, drop, drug, dry, due, during, dust, duty, dwell, dying, dynamic, each, eager, ear, earlier, early, earn, earnings, earth, earthquake, ease, easily, east, eastern, easy, eat, economic, economy, edge, edit, edition, editor, educate, education, educational, educator, effect, effective, effectively, efficiency, efficient, effort, egg, eight, either, elderly, elect, election, electric, electrical, electricity, electronic, element, elementary, eliminate, elite, else, elsewhere, e-mail, embrace, emerge, emergency, emission, emotion, emotional, emphasis, emphasize, employ, employee, employer, employment, empty, enable, encounter, encourage, end, enemy, energy, enforcement, engage, engine, engineer, engineering, English, enhance, enjoy, enormous, enough, ensure, enter, enterprise, entertain, entertainment, entire, entirely, entrance, entry, environment, environmental, episode, equal, equally, equipment, equivalent, era, error, escape, especially, essay, essential, essentially, establish, establishment, estate, estimate, etc, ethics, ethnic, European, evaluate, evaluation, evening, event, eventually, ever, every, everybody, everyday, everyone, everything, everywhere, evidence, evolution, evolve, exact, exactly, exam, examination, examine, example, exceed, excellent, except, exception, exchange, exciting, executive, exercise, exhibit, exhibition, exist, existence, existing, expand, expansion, expect, expectation, expense, expensive, experience, experiment, expert, explain, explanation, explode, explore, explosion, expose, exposure, express, expression, extend, extension, extensive, extent, external, extra, extraordinary, extreme, extremely, eye, fabric, face, facility, fact, factor, factory, faculty, fade, fail, failure, fair, fairly, faith, fall, false, familiar, family, famous, fan, fantasy, far, farm, farmer, fashion, fast, fat, fate, father, fault, favor, favorite, fear, feature, federal, fee, feed, feel, feeling, fellow, female, fence, festival, few, fewer, fiber, fiction, field, fifteen, fifth, fifty, fight, fighter, fighting, figure, file, fill, film, final, finally, finance, financial, find, finding, fine, finger, finish, fire, firm, first, fish, fishing, fit, fitness, five, fix, flag, flame, flat, flavor, flee, flesh, flight, float, floor, flow, flower, fly, focus, folk, follow, following, food, foot, football, for, force, foreign, forest, forever, forget, form, formal, formation, former, formula, forth, fortune, forward, found, foundation, founder, four, fourth, frame, framework, free, freedom, freeze, French, frequency, frequent, frequently, fresh, friend, friendly, friendship, from, front, fruit, frustration, fuel, fulfill, full, fully, fun, function, fund, fundamental, funding, funeral, funny, furniture, furthermore, future, gain, galaxy, gallery, game, gang, gap, garage, garden, garlic, gas, gate, gather, gay, gaze, gear, gender, gene, general, generally, generate, generation, genetic, gentleman, gently, German, gesture, get, ghost, giant, gift, gifted, girl, girlfriend, give, given, glad, glance, glass, global, glove, go, goal, God, gold, golden, golf, good, govern, government, governor, grab, grace, grade, gradually, graduate, grain, grand, grandmother, grant, grass, grave, gray, great, green, grocery, ground, group, grow, growing, growth, guarantee, guard, guess, guest, guide, guideline, guilty, gun, guy, habit, habitat, hair, half, hall, hand, handful, handle, hang, happen, happy, harbor, hard, hardly, hat, hate, have, he, head, headline, headquarters, health, healthy, hear, hearing, heart, heat, heaven, heavily, heavy, heel, height, helicopter, hell, hello, help, helpful, hence, her, herb, here, heritage, hero, herself, hey, hi, hide, high, highlight, highly, highway, hill, him, himself, hip, hire, his, historic, historical, history, hit, hold, hole, holiday, holy, home, homeless, honest, honey, honor, hope, horizon, horror, horse, hospital, host, hot, hotel, hour, house, household, housing, how, however, huge, human, humor, hundred, hungry, hunter, hunting, hurt, husband, hypothesis, ice, idea, ideal, identification, identify, identity, ignore, ill, illegal, illness, illustrate, image, imagination, imagine, immediate, immediately, immigrant, immigration, impact, implement, implication, imply, importance, important, impose, impossible, impress, impression, impressive, improve, improvement, incentive, incident, include, including, income, incorporate, increase, increased, increasingly, incredible, indeed, independence, independent, index, indicate, indication, individual, industrial, industry, infant, infection, inflation, influence, inform, information, ingredient, initial, initially, initiative, injury, inner, innocent, inquiry, inside, insight, insist, inspire, install, instance, instead, institute, institution, institutional, instruction, instructor, instrument, insurance, intellectual, intelligence, intend, intense, intensity, intention, interaction, interest, interested, interesting, internal, international, Internet, interpret, interpretation, intervention, interview, introduce, introduction, invasion, invest, investigation, investigator, investment, investor, invite, involve, involved, involvement, Iraqi, Irish, iron, Islamic, island, Israeli, issue, it, Italian, item, its, itself, jacket, jail, Japanese, jet, Jew, Jewish, job, join, joint, joke, journal, journalist, journey, joy, judge, judgment, juice, jump, junior, jury, just, justice, justify, keep, key, kick, kid, kill, killer, killing, kind, king, kiss, kitchen, knee, knife, knock, know, knowledge, lab, label, labor, laboratory, lack, lady, lake, land, landscape, language, lap, large, largely, last, late, later, Latin, latter, laugh, launch, law, lawsuit, lawyer, lay, layer, lead, leader, leadership, leading, leaf, league, lean, learn, learning, least, leather, leave, left, leg, legacy, legal, legend, legislation, legislative, legislator, legitimate, lemon, length, less, lesson, let, letter, level, liberal, library, license, lie, life, lifestyle, lifetime, lift, light, like, likely, limit, limitation, limited, line, link, lip, list, listen, literary, literature, little, live, living, load, loan, local, locate, location, lock, long, long-term, look, loose, lose, loss, lost, lot, lots, loud, love, lovely, lover, low, lower, luck, lucky, lunch, luxury, machine, mad, magazine, mail, main, mainly, maintain, maintenance, major, majority, make, maker, makeup, male, mall, man, manage, management, manager, manner, manufacturer, manufacturing, many, map, margin, mark, market, marketing, marriage, married, marry, mask, mass, massive, master, match, material, math, matter, may, maybe, mayor, me, meal, mean, meaning, meanwhile, measure, measurement, meat, mechanism, media, medical, medication, medicine, medium, meet, meeting, member, membership, memory, mental, mention, menu, mere, merely, mess, message, metal, meter, method, Mexican, middle, might, military, milk, million, mind, mine, minister, minor, minority, minute, miracle, mirror, miss, missile, mission, mistake, mix, mixture, mm-hmm, mode, model, moderate, modern, modest, mom, moment, money, monitor, month, mood, moon, moral, more, moreover, morning, mortgage, most, mostly, mother, motion, motivation, motor, mountain, mouse, mouth, move, movement, movie, Mr, Mrs, Ms, much, multiple, murder, muscle, museum, music, musical, musician, Muslim, must, mutual, my, myself, mystery, myth, naked, name, narrative, narrow, nation, national, native, natural, naturally, nature, near, nearby, nearly, necessarily, necessary, neck, need, negative, negotiate, negotiation, neighbor, neighborhood, neither, nerve, nervous, net, network, never, nevertheless, new, newly, news, newspaper, next, nice, night, nine, no, nobody, nod, noise, nomination, nominee, none, nonetheless, nor, normal, normally, north, northern, nose, not, note, nothing, notice, notion, novel, now, nowhere, nuclear, number, numerous, nurse, nut, object, objective, obligation, observation, observe, observer, obtain, obvious, obviously, occasion, occasionally, occupation, occupy, occur, ocean, odd, odds, of, off, offense, offensive, offer, office, officer, official, often, oh, oil, okay, old, Olympic, on, once, one, ongoing, onion, online, only, onto, open, opening, operate, operating, operation, operator, opinion, opponent, opportunity, oppose, opposed, opposite, opposition, option, or, orange, order, ordinary, organic, organization, organize, orientation, origin, original, originally, other, others, otherwise, ought, our, ours, ourselves, out, outcome, outside, oven, over, overall, overcome, overlook, owe, own, owner, pace, pack, package, page, pain, painful, paint, painter, painting, pair, pale, Palestinian, palm, pan, panel, panic, pant, paper, paragraph, parent, park, parking, part, participant, participate, participation, particle, particular, particularly, partly, partner, partnership, party, pass, passage, passenger, passion, past, patch, path, patient, pattern, pause, pay, payment, PC, peace, peak, peer, pen, penalty, people, pepper, per, perceive, percentage, perception, perfect, perfectly, perform, performance, perhaps, period, permanent, permission, permit, person, personal, personality, personally, personnel, perspective, persuade, pet, phase, phenomenon, philosophy, phone, photo, photographer, phrase, physical, physically, physician, piano, pick, picture, pie, piece, pile, pilot, pine, pink, pipe, pitch, place, plan, plane, planet, planning, plant, plastic, plate, platform, play, player, please, pleasure, plenty, plot, plus, PM, pocket, poem, poet, poetry, point, police, policy, political, politically, politician, politics, poll, pollution, pool, poor, pop, popular, population, porch, port, portion, portrait, portray, pose, position, positive, possess, possession, possibility, possible, possibly, post, pot, potato, potential, potentially, pound, pour, poverty, powder, power, powerful, practical, practice, prayer, preach, precisely, predict, prediction, prefer, preference, pregnancy, pregnant, preparation, prepare, prescription, presence, present, presentation, preserve, president, presidential, press, pressure, pretend, pretty, prevent, previous, previously, price, pride, priest, primarily, primary, prime, principal, principle, print, prior, priority, prison, prisoner, privacy, private, probably, problem, procedure, proceed, process, processing, processor, proclaim, produce, producer, product, production, profession, professional, professor, profile, profit, program, progress, progressive, project, prominent, promise, promote, prompt, proof, proper, properly, property, proportion, proposal, propose, prosecutor, prospect, protect, protection, protein, protest, proud, prove, provide, provider, province, provision, psychological, psychology, public, publication, publicity, publish, publisher, pull, punishment, purchase, pure, purpose, pursue, push, put, qualify, quality, quarter, quarterback, quarterly, queen, quest, question, quick, quickly, quiet, quietly, quit, quite, quote, race, racial, radiation, radical, radio, rail, rain, raise, range, rank, rapid, rapidly, rare, rarely, rate, rather, rating, ratio, raw, reach, react, reaction, reader, reading, ready, real, reality, realize, really, reason, reasonable, recall, receive, recent, recently, reception, recipe, recipient, recognition, recognize, recommend, recommendation, record, recording, recover, recovery, recruit, red, reduce, reduction, refer, reference, reflect, reflection, reform, refugee, refuse, regard, regarding, regardless, regime, region, regional, register, regular, regularly, regulate, regulation, regulator, reinforce, reject, relate, relation, relationship, relative, relatively, relax, release, relevant, relief, religion, religious, rely, remain, remaining, remarkable, remember, remind, remote, remove, repeat, repeatedly, replace, replacement, reply, report, reporter, represent, representation, representative, Republican, reputation, request, require, requirement, research, researcher, resemble, reservation, resident, residential, resign, resist, resistance, resolution, resolve, resort, resource, respect, respond, response, responsibility, responsible, rest, restaurant, restore, restriction, result, retain, retire, retirement, return, reveal, revenue, review, revolution, rhythm, rice, rich, rid, ride, rifle, right, ring, rise, risk, river, road, rock, role, roll, romantic, roof, room, root, rope, rose, rough, roughly, round, route, routine, row, rub, rubber, rude, ruin, rule, run, running, rural, rush, Russian, sacred, sad, safe, safety, sake, salad, salary, sale, sales, salt, same, sample, sanction, sand, satellite, satisfaction, satisfied, satisfy, sauce, save, saving, say, scale, scandal, scare, scatter, scenario, scene, schedule, scheme, scholar, scholarship, school, science, scientific, scientist, scope, score, scream, screen, script, sea, search, season, seat, second, secondary, secret, secretary, section, sector, secure, security, see, seed, seek, seem, segment, seize, select, selection, self, sell, Senate, senator, send, senior, sense, sensitive, sentence, separate, sequence, series, serious, seriously, servant, serve, service, session, set, setting, settle, settlement, seven, several, severe, sex, sexual, shade, shadow, shake, shall, shallow, shape, share, sharp, she, sheet, shelf, shell, shelter, shift, shine, ship, shirt, shock, shoe, shoot, shooting, shop, shopping, short, shortly, shot, should, shoulder, shout, show, shower, shrug, shut, shy, sibling, sick, side, sigh, sight, sign, signal, significant, significantly, silence, silent, silver, similar, similarly, simple, simply, sin, since, sing, singer, single, sink, sir, sister, sit, site, situation, six, size, ski, skill, skin, skirt, sky, slave, sleep, slice, slide, slight, slightly, slip, slow, slowly, small, smart, smell, smile, smoke, smooth, snap, snow, so, so-called, soccer, social, society, soft, software, soil, solar, soldier, sole, solid, solution, solve, some, somebody, somehow, someone, something, sometimes, somewhat, somewhere, son, song, soon, sophisticated, sorry, sort, soul, sound, soup, source, south, southern, Soviet, space, Spanish, speak, speaker, special, specialist, species, specific, specifically, specify, speech, speed, spend, spending, spin, spirit, spiritual, split, spoil, sponsor, sport, spot, spray, spread, spring, square, squeeze, stability, stable, staff, stage, stain, stair, stake, stand, standard, standing, star, stare, start, state, statement, station, statistical, status, stay, steady, steal, steel, steep, stem, step, stick, still, stimulate, stimulus, stir, stock, stomach, stone, stop, storage, store, storm, story, straight, strange, stranger, strategic, strategy, stream, street, strength, strengthen, stress, stretch, strike, string, strip, stroke, strong, strongly, structural, structure, struggle, student, studio, study, stuff, stupid, style, subject, submit, subsequent, substance, substantial, substitute, succeed, success, successful, successfully, such, sudden, suddenly, sue, suffer, sufficient, sugar, suggest, suggestion, suicide, suit, summer, summit, sun, super, supply, support, supporter, suppose, supposed, Supreme, sure, surely, surface, surgery, surprise, surprised, surprising, surprisingly, surround, survey, survival, survive, survivor, suspect, sustain, swear, sweep, sweet, swim, swing, switch, symbol, symptom, system, table, tactic, tail, take, tale, talent, talk, tall, tank, tap, tape, target, task, taste, tax, taxi, tea, teach, teacher, teaching, team, tear, technical, technique, technology, teen, teenager, telephone, telescope, television, tell, temperature, temporary, ten, tend, tendency, tennis, tension, tent, term, terms, terrible, territory, terror, terrorist, test, testimony, testing, text, than, thank, thanks, that, the, theater, their, them, theme, themselves, then, theory, therapy, there, therefore, these, they, thick, thin, thing, think, thinking, third, thirty, this, those, though, thought, thousand, threat, threaten, three, throat, through, throughout, throw, thus, ticket, tie, tight, time, tiny, tip, tire, tissue, title, to, tobacco, today, toe, together, toilet, token, tolerate, tomato, tomorrow, tone, tongue, tonight, too, tool, tooth, top, topic, toss, total, totally, touch, tough, tour, tourist, tournament, toward, towards, tower, town, toy, trace, track, trade, tradition, traditional, traffic, tragedy, trail, train, training, transfer, transform, transformation, transition, translate, translation, transmission, transmit, transport, transportation, travel, treat, treatment, treaty, tree, tremendous, trend, trial, tribe, trick, trip, troop, trouble, truck, true, truly, trust, truth, try, tube, tunnel, turn, TV, twelve, twenty, twice, twin, two, type, typical, typically, ugly, ultimate, ultimately, unable, uncle, undergo, understand, understanding, unfortunately, uniform, union, unique, unit, United, universal, universe, university, unknown, unless, unlike, until, unusual, up, upon, upper, urban, urge, us, use, used, useful, user, usual, usually, utility, utilize, vacation, valley, valuable, value, variable, variation, variety, various, vary, vast, vegetable, vehicle, venture, version, versus, very, vessel, veteran, via, victim, victory, video, view, viewer, village, violate, violation, violence, violent, virtually, virtue, virus, visibility, visible, vision, visit, visitor, visual, vital, voice, volume, voluntary, volunteer, vote, voter, voting, wage, wait, wake, walk, wall, wander, want, war, warm, warn, warning, wash, waste, watch, water, wave, way, we, weak, weakness, wealth, wealthy, weapon, wear, weather, web, website, wedding, week, weekend, weekly, weigh, weight, welcome, welfare, well, west, western, wet, what, whatever, wheel, when, whenever, where, whereas, whether, which, while, whisper, white, who, whole, whom, whose, why, wide, widely, widespread, wife, wild, wildlife, will, willing, win, wind, window, wine, wing, winner, winter, wipe, wire, wisdom, wise, wish, with, withdraw, within, without, witness, woman, wonder, wonderful, wood, wooden, word, work, worker, working, workout, workplace, works, workshop, world, worried, worry, worth, would, wound, wrap, write, writer, writing, wrong, yard, yeah, year, yell, yellow, yes, yesterday, yet, yield, you, young, your, yours, yourself, youth, zone.

I've recently dowloaded a pdf about the morphologic development of Italic languages (from the site of the university of Vermont), and it basically says that latin first declension vocative singular ends in a short -ă which originates “from *-eh2, but with the laryngeal lost in pausa by Kuiper’s Law” but I don't really know what Kuiper's law is or what "in pausa" means and I can't find much online.
And since it's a sound law it should be applied with a certain degree of regularity but the nominative singular has not been affected by it (in Latin 1° declension nom. sg. ends in a short -ă too but "it's a reflection of the original vocarive singular" as the pdf says; while in Sabellic nom. sg. seems to have kept the expected long -ā ending, and in the Proto-Italic reconstruction too).
Examples:
PIE nom. sg. *bʰardʰéh₂ > Proto-Italic *farβā (long ā).
BUT
PIE voc. sg. *bʰardʰéh₂ > Proto-Italic *farβa (short -a)
Thank you in advance.

Hello,
I am trying to find the origins of the genus name "Grifola", as in Grifola frondosa. It seems like the obvious origin might be that it is named after the Griffin since it resembles the feathers of the creature, however, I am unable to find any proper sources saying this is the origin. The only place I have seen this origin mentioned is on the hiker's notebook blog. They do mention that in french they call it pied de griffon (foot of the griffin), but I am not sure the legitimacy of this. The griffin explanation could also potentially make sense as the suffix "-ola" is another form of "-olus/-ulus" which indicate a diminutive. making Grifola mean "small griffin" (which is pretty adorable).
The other name I have seen is that Grifola means "something intricate or braided". I saw this on the Messiah Univerity Webiste.
Looking for any further insight or sources on this. Thanks!

“Know ye not that the unrighteous shall not inherit the kingdom of God? Be not deceived: neither fornicators, nor idolaters, nor adulterers, nor EFFEMINATE
, nor abusers of themselves with mankind,” ‭‭1 Corinthians‬ ‭6‬:‭9‬ ‭KJV‬‬ https://bible.com/bible/1/1co.6.9.KJV
Late 14c., "womanish; voluptuous; tender," from Latin effeminatus "womanish, effeminate," past participle of effeminare "make a woman of," from assimilated form of ex "out" (see ex-) + femina "woman, a female" (literally "she who suckles," from PIE root *dhe(i)- "to suck"). Rarely used but in reproach. The noun meaning "effeminate person" is from 1590s. Related: Effeminately; effemination.

Question is as the title. PIE ḱwon- (dog) is believed to be the root for Greek κύων, latin canis and proto Germanic hundaz.

Hi, in the fall my band is playing in a yearly competition and we would like to hear some ideas from the creative minds on here. This competition is both a musical and entertainment so we like to try to put on a real show for it. For reference here are some of the previous programs: Kung fu panda (with kung fu fighting whilst walking out) How to train your dragon The pied piper Save the rainforests/ environment Spanish/ latin Scandinavian/ viking
The show has to be around 15 minutes, and my band play pieces mainly from grade 4 - 5. The competition also has a soloist prize so a solo for whatever instrument would be fun.
Does anyone hava any suggestions for either a theme or a piece (or multiple) that we could play? Thanks in advance!

Edit: I originally thought I was being clever when I did this, but I see that Latin does almost this exact same thing 😂
Do y'all have any idiomatic phrases that make use of an archaic meaning or grammatical structure in your clongs?
My recent project is an IE lang in which the PIE subjunctive forms changed to have a future meaning and the PIE optative changed to have a subjunctive meaning. This use of this contemporary subjunctive is seen when someone is expressing desire or a wish for an action. They would not use a verb "to want," but rather they would put the verb in the subjunctive with use of <ȝefi> /jefi/ "if" + a dative agent (person who is desiring). Here, the conjunction <ȝefi> does not strictly mean "if" and is not what is triggering the subjunctive, but draws on a proto-form prepositional meaning of "according to" or "by." For example:

• Mos uþþēr ȝefi ējo fiþaoȝþo.
• I hope the rain stops soon.
• soon rain-nom if me-sing.dat stop-middlevoice.3S.subj
• /mos úθθeːr jefi éːʝo fíθaojθo/

This cannot be used with just a noun as the object, where a verb specifically meaning "wish fohope" must be used which puts the object in the accusative: ie:

• Weȝxoh wiṭȝɔ̄.
• I hope for victory.
• victory-sing.acc wish-1S.pres
• /wéjxoh wítʰjɑː/

Luwian wašha- / wišha- ‘master / lord’ came from PIE *H2weso- ‘being / good?’ (possibly first a title of respect like ‘good (sir)’ used similar to Mr.) with metathesis *H2weso-s > *wesH2o-s. Since Hittite išhā- must also be closely related (1), it had *w- > 0- for some reason. Based on the loan Hattic wašhaf- / ašhaf- ‘god’ (2), this was caused by dissimilation of *w-f > *0-f. This is part of a widespread change. If H2 = x or χ and H3 = xW or χW, that Anatolian *H3 > hw- but sometimes merged with *H2 > h- could be explained by dissimilation of *xW > *x near W / P: *xWowi- > L. ovis ‘sheep’, Luw. hawi-; *xWopni- > L. omnis ‘every/whole’, *xWopino- > H. happina- ‘rich’.
​
​
But where did -f come from in *wesH2o-s > *wesH2a-f? If there was some environment that caused *s > *f, it seems to also exist in other words that “lose” s but gain a round feature :
​
*(s)ker- ‘cut (apart)’ > G. keírō ‘shear / destroy’, Arm. k’erem ‘scrape / scratch’, OIr scaraim ‘separate’, Li. skiriu, H. kuer- ‘cut’
​
If this began as assimilation, *sk is relatively rare (more *sk^ and *skW ), so a change of *s > *x near plain K allows :
​
*sk > xk > fk > kf > kw
​
This is possible and seen in many languages that had f > x or x > f (or sometimes xW) due to somewhat similar sounds (Celtic *ps / *pt > xs / xt, Yeniseian and Japanese *p > *f > x / h). If so, H2 = x or χ might cause assimilation of s near H in *wesH2o-s > *wesH2a-f :
​
*-χas > -χax > -χaf > -haš
​
These changes might show that similar unclear changes in other H. words were from the same cause. For example, in *pr̥k^-sk^e- ‘request / ask (for)’ > Hittite punušš- the presence of -u- could be due to:
​
*pr̥k^-sk^e- > *pǝrx^sx^e- > *pǝrxsx^e- > *pǝrfsxe- > *porfsxe- > *ponfsxe- > *ponwsxe- > punušš-
​
Here, the presence of -n- makes most linguists reconstruct origin from a different root with *n. However, it is not appropriate to look only at words that sound alike without regard to meaning; this is mere folk etymology. This contains an odd cluster *-k^sk^-, and there is no way to know a priori what it would become, especially without being aware of all the changes to *x, etc., needed for other words that have been ignored. Pretending that no sound change could exist except very obvious ones that only produce very similar sounds ignores all the evidence from known changes within historical languages that sometimes create very odd outcomes. Though these are less common, they are not nonexistent, and should be considered on their own merits. Since ls > ns is theorized for *kWl̥saH2- > H. Gulsa- ‘fate goddess’, Luwian Kwanza- (Yakubovich 2013-14), an intermediate stage with *ls > *ns > nts vs. *rf > *nf > *nw seems possible (I don’t think all r / l / n in Anatolian is regular, but it makes no difference in these examples). The change of *r̥ > *or between P’s is similar to *l̥ > *ol after *kW in Gulsa-.
​
​
This is not all. The changes of *H3-w > š-w and similar shifts (Cohen & Hyllested 2018) are needed to explain *H3okW- ‘eye’ > H. šākuwa-, Luw. tāwa-, etc. They occur in exactly the same environment I theorized for H3 > H2 (hw- > h- by dissimilation near W / P ). This seems best explained by merging the 2 ideas. PIE *H was either velar or uvular in Anatolian, seemingly free variation (3), and when *χW-w > *χ-w it appeared as h-w but when *xW-w > *x-w it underwent my *x > *f appeared as š in Hittite, as t- / d- in Luwian. This would mean all *f > š in Hittite, but initial *f- > *θ- / *ð- > t- / d- in Luwian (and similar for Lycian, etc.). It is likely that *-f > -š in both, but since this is only seen in the nom. it is possible that it was instead restored by analogy.
​
​
With this, Hattic wašhaf- / ašhaf- ‘god’ is explained as an adaptation of the nom. of *H2weso-s > *wesH2o-s > Proto-Luwian *wasH2a-f / *asH2a-f (or a similar path). It seems clear with this that the name of Hurrian Teššub / Tisupi / Tisapa / Tesub / Tet’up ‘Storm God’ can have their variants explained as from H. tethai- ‘to thunder’ and *wasH2a-f ‘lord / god’ as:
​
*tetxa-wasxaf > *tetxa-was_af > *testxa-waf > *testxawf > *testxavf > *testxavp > *testxo:p
​
This includes dissimilation of *x-x > *x-0, likely causing metathesis. Other changes are likely regular. The cluster *stx could simplify > *tx > t’ or *ts > *ts / *ss > s / šš. There is no cluster that would be more simple yet produce all these outcomes; emphatic t’ from *tx or similar seems to fit. Since -f also existed in Hurrian, -p here would show that *-wf > *-wp, likely due to old *w > *v creating an odd *-vf that was “fixed” by dissimilation. Since *wašha-f also looks very similar to Kassite bašhu / mašhu ‘god’, it is possible that Luwian (or a similar old Anatolian language) spread this word across much of northern Mesopotamia (depending on the previous location of the Kassites).
​
​
There is other evidence for assimilation of *d(h) to b near W, which makes it likely that *d(h) > *ð first, similar to *f / t above :
​
*kWodhiH > L. ubi(:) ‘where’, G. póthi, *kWoði > *kWoβi > *kWobi > H. kwapi ‘where / when’
​
Just as Latin -b- came from *-dh-, there is no reason to separate H. -p- [-b-] from other IE cognates. In the same way, H. wemiya- ‘find’ is unusual in having no clear cognates and odd structure for verbs of CeC-y. Both these can be explained simply by realizing it is related to IE words with the same meaning, not the same sound, due to sound changes :
​
*wid-ne- ‘know’ > Arm. gtanem ‘find’, *wind- > OIr finn- ‘know / find out’, Skt. vindati ‘find’, *winβ- > *wimw- > H. wemiya- ‘find’
​
Thus, CeC-y is not odd since it did not come from *CeC-y, or have any affix with *y at all, just dissimilation of *w-w > w-y.
​
​
Notes
​

1. If Hittite išhā- is instead compared with L. erus ‘master of a house / head of a family’ (Kloekhorst 2008) it would ignore nearby Luwian wašha- / wišha- and require *H1esH2o-. There is no suffix *-H2o- and wašha- already requires metathesis to explain *H2w- > w-h-, so these features being unrelated seems impossible. Loss of w- is also seen in Hattic wašhaf- / ašhaf- ‘god’, so not reconstructing the same for Hittite would be pointless.

​

1. Hattic wašhaf- / ašhaf- ‘god’ has been seen as showing an affix wa-, but if Hittite išhā- & Luwian wašha- / wišha- are related, this would obviously be from the same cause, not a native affix. As far as I know, there is no evidence that any affix expressed plurality in Hattic, or that wa- is collective (or seen in any other words).

​

1. Cohen & Hyllested claim this change was regular, but plenty of examples show it was not. Instead of separating hw-w > š-w from hw-w > h-w or saying that all examples that don’t fit one theory are “wrong” or not cognate, it seems clear that some optionality existed. This is not a problem, and is no different in type than many other examples of irregularities considered as “expressive” or due to dialects (many of which are completely unattested), yet are not seen as a problem for Neogrammarians.

​
​
Chirikba, Viacheslav (1996) The Relation of Proto-West Caucasian to Hattic
https://www.academia.edu/1215069
​
Cohen, Paul S. & Hyllested, Adam (2018) The Anatolian Dissimilation Rule Revisited
https://www.academia.edu/47791737
​
Kloekhorst, Alwin (2008) Etymological Dictionary of the Hittite Inherited Lexicon
https://www.academia.edu/345121
​
Yakubovich, Ilya (2013-14) The Luwian deity Kwanza
https://www.academia.edu/9963557
​

The Avestan word daēnā- is translated as ‘religion / vision’ (cognate with Skt. dhyāna- ‘meditation / thought / contemplation’). The concept is also personified as a maiden who leads the soul of the dead to paradise. The disputes over its meaning range from those who see it as equivalent to the method that allows a priest to have a vision from god to those who feel a holy marriage between a man’s soul and his daēnā- is required in order to have this vision or to go to heaven. Many of these ideas overlap, but some have little support.
​
According to Pirart, in Hāδōxt Nask 2 it is described how when a man dies his soul spends 3 nights near the head of his corpse. If he was righteous in life, at the end of the 3rd night he sees his daēnā in the form of a beautiful 15-year-old maiden. When he asks her who she is, she explains she is the visible representation of his soul, and her beauty embodies his good thoughts, words, and deeds in life. Pirart claims that because she called the soul Yum ‘O youth (young man)’ she imitates the words of a wife to husband at marriage, and is indeed married to him. This seems like insufficient evidence, since if youth is restored to a soul at death, this would be a normal thing to call him.
​
He also says that the daēnā is introduced as a kainīn ‘maiden’ and is then addressed as a carāitī ‘pregnant woman’ means the man’s soul has immediately impregnated her between her appearance and his first words to her. That’s quick work. Instead, I feel his translations are wrong. Ahmadi disputes the meaning ‘vision’ for daēnā- in this context, and thinks it is better translated as ‘religion’ due to being the reason the righteous can reach heaven (thus, basically a metaphor). He also says that carāitī does not always mean ‘pregnant woman’ in other contexts, so there should be no reason to claim its use here proves anything of the sort.
​
I agree with both of Ahmadi’s views, and add that carāitī seems to be the feminine of *carāt-, which is an odd form for an Av. word. An analysis might shed some light on its oldest meaning. The most common source for car- in Iranian is PIE *kWel(H)- ‘go / move / etc.’. Since *-āt- would have no known meaning attached to this, instead old *carart- > *carāt- could work (with dissimilation of *r-r, a very common type of change, and hard to see since it is often irregular). This resembles Greek dámart- ‘wife’ which is supposedly made up of *d(e)mH2- ‘tame / house’ and *H2(a)rto- ‘attached / joined’, as ‘joined in marriage / in the same house’. What *kWel(H)- H2(a)rto- might show is that a shift of ‘traveling with > companion > wife’ existed in both, and dámart- came from *dr(e)m- ‘run’ (also with dissimilation of *r-r, in the other direction). This same shift seen in: *sokWyo- ‘follower’ > Latin socius ‘companion’, *sokWya: > Faliscan socia- ‘wife’, Marsian socie-que ‘and-wife’; *swe-t(e)ro- > G. hétaros ‘comrade / companion / lover’, hetaírā ‘courtesan’.
​
I think the conception of the daēnā- (no pun intended) might also depend on its resemblance to Av. daēnu- ‘female of four-footed animals’, *daēnā- ‘milk cow’ (Sskt. dhḗnā-), related to L. fēmina, G. thêlus ‘female’, etc. The existence of likely daēnā- besides *daēnā- in Proto-Iranian would allow a pun or simile about a female psychopomp (similar to Valkyries, but to an eternal reward) being caused by or equivalent to ‘religion’, ‘right actions’, and ‘good deeds’. I feel these metaphors, or even simple misunderstandings as languages changed and words were lost or became of unclear meaning, are more common in Indo-European religion than most think (Whalen 2023).
​
Ahmadi, Amir (2019?) Ritual and Eschatology in Zoroastrianism
https://www.academia.edu/44734747
​
Panaino, Antonio (2017) The Souls of Women in the Zoroastrian Afterlife
https://www.academia.edu/36346591
​
Pirart, Éric (2006) L’Aphrodite iranienne
​
Whalen, Sean (2023) The Separation of the Sun and Moon
https://www.reddit.com/mythology/comments/10qeu8f/the_separation_of_the_sun_and_moon/
​

H causing d > ð
​
The existence of PIE *k^H2and- / *(s)kend- ‘shine / glitter / burn’ only makes sense if they are related by optional *s > H2 (Whalen 2024b), since having 2 roots that differ only by H2 vs. s makes little sense. Alone, it might be considered possible, but with so many other examples of s / H, I see no other explanation. Roots with *(s)C- might often be caused by *sC > *HC / *CH as well. Looking at the cognates:
​
*k^H2and- / *(s)kend- > Skt. (ś)cand- ‘shine / glitter’, L. candēre, incendium ‘fiery heat / fire / passion’, *sxand > Kh. qòn ‘burning coal’
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*k^H2and-rHo-? > *k^H2and-ro- > Skt. candrá- ‘shining / glittering’, *k^H2and-Hro- > G. kándaros ‘charcoal’
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*skend-ro- > Skt. hári-ścandra- ‘glittering like gold’
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most words can fit this theory. Here, *(s)kend- > Skt. (ś)cand- can only work if *-e- existed to front *k > *č, since PIE *sk^- > ch-. The 2nd *H needed to produce G. kándaros seems to be part of the suffix, usually disappearing, explaining *-iHno- / *-inHo- > -īno- / -ino-, etc. (Whalen 2024b). It might also help explain a group of words that seem obviously related to the above, but not regularly derivable from the same source:
​
Ps. skōr ‘coal’, Waz. skȫr ‘piece of charcoal’, NP sikâr, Sh. kā́ro ‘coal’, kā̃rŭ ‘burning piece of coal’
​
The existence of something like *skanra- seems needed to explain the nasalizaiton in kā̃rŭ, so their resemblance to +ścandra- is significant. With the retention of Iran. *H that optionally caused devoicing and fricatization (Kümmel, Whalen 2024c), sometimes after metathesis, these words allow more specificicty in the changes. If *H caused fricatization first, and sometimes moved after this, but before devoicing, it would allow the 2nd *H to both change *-ndr- to *-nðr- (for which no other examples would exist), then move to after *sk-, making *skH- that prevented palatalization (this likely showing that *H = R or χ). This would solve both problems preventing these groups from being seen as cognates at once. Approximately:
​
*skend-Hro- = *skendRro- > *skenðRro- > *skRenðro- > *skR^enðro- > *skR^anðra- > *skranðra- > *skanðra- > Ps. skōr ‘coal’, etc.
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That this really did produce something like *skr- could be seen in explaining more derivatives of this word with otherwise unexplained retroflexion of *t :
​
*skranðra-vat- > *skanðra-vart- > *skanðra-varṭ- > *skanðra-vaṭ- (dissimilation) > Ps. Khl. skarwáṭa ‘spark of fire’, Y. iskawaṭ ‘coal’
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Though -va(n)t- ‘possessing’ is a common suffix, that it appeared both with and without -n- prevents finding the exact sequence; either *vant with dissimilation of *n-n or simply *vat.
​
R / r / H / 0
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Both *H > *R and *r > *H seem to exist without environmental cause, which shows that *H was pronounced similar to uvular R / x (Whalen, 2024e). Various paths include:
​
r ( > R > X ) > 0
​
G. drómos ‘race(track)’ >> Aro. drum / dum ‘road’
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*dru- > G. drûs, Alb. drushk / dushk ‘oak’
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*dreps- > Skt. drapsá- ‘banner’, G. dépsa ‘tanned skin’
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*derk^- > G. dérkomai, Arm. tesanem ‘see’
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*perk^- > L. procus ‘suitor’, Arm. p`esay ‘son-in-law / groom’
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*prek^- > L. prēx ‘request’, Arm. ałersan-k` / ałač`an-k` / ołok`an-k` ‘supplication’
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*karsto- > Ri. karšt / kašt, G. káston ‘wood’, Arm. kask ‘(chest)nut’
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*k^rno-s > L. cornus ‘cornel cherry-tree’, G. krános, Alb. thanë
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*wormo- > Li. varmas ‘insect/mosquito’, Alb. vemje
(and/or *wrmi- > ormr ‘worm’, *wormidā > *vomida > Rum. omidă ‘caterpillar’)
​
​
This seems to include both r > 0 and l > 0 in Eastern Indo-European (in which many l > r are known), with uvular *R fairly clear as a feature of Indo-Iranian, since r > 0 occurs there often (some seen in cognates of the above):
​
*splendh- > L. splend-, Li. spindėti ‘shine’, TB peñiya ‘splendoglory’
​
*sprend(h)- > OE sprind ‘agile/lively’, E. sprint, Skt. spandate ‘throb/shake/quivekick’
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*prostH2o- > Kh. frosk / hósk ‘straight’, OCS prostъ ‘straight/simple’
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? > *bragnaka- > MP brahnag, Os. bägnäg ‘naked’
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? > *braywar- ‘multitude/myriad / 10,000’ > Av. baēvarǝ, OP baivar-, Sog. ßrywr
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Skt. vṛtra- ‘stone’, *vart(r)a- > Rom. barr, Lv. var, D. wáaṛ, Kh. boxt \ boht \ bohrt ‘rock/stone’, Ti. baṭ(h) ‘large rock’, Dm. bāṭ , Dv. wāt'
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*H2rg^nto-k^weito- > *ǝrzata-svēta > *ǝrzsvēt > Os. ëvzist \ ëvzestë ‘silver’
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Skt. gaccha- ‘tree’, Kh. gḷòts ‘crotch of tree’
​
A. ghrútsa ‘wild strawberries’, Kh. grùts ‘bunch of grapes’, Skt. gutsá- / guccha- ‘bundle / bunch of flowers / tussock / etc.’
*gṛutsa- > *ṛutsa- > *uṛutsa- > Kt. vřóts, Kv. řóts ‘raceme / bunch of grapes (measure)’, Sa. vâṣ
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*k^louni-s > OIc hlaun, G. klónis ‘coccyx’, Li. šlaunìs ‘thigh / hip’, Av. sraōni- ‘hip / buttock’, Os. sin \ sujnë, *k’Rauṇi > *s’xauṇi > *s’xuŋai > Sh. sʌŋáy ‘buttock’, *s’xuŋay > *s’xuŋaž > *žus’ŋax > šʌsnā ‘thigh’, Kh. šròn ‘hip’
​
​
This r > 0 might be much more common, but many examples could have been ignored by linguists, instead thought to be from *-o(s)- vs. suffixed *-ro-s even when they shared the same meaning:
​
*dhmbhro- > Arm. damban / dambaran ‘tomb/grave’, G. táphros ‘ditch’, táphos ‘burial/funeral/grave’
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*autro- ‘clothing, shoe?’ > Av. aōthra- ‘footwear’, Arm. awd
​
​
Compare Arm. r > x in:
​
Akkadian taškarinnu, Hurrian taškarhi ‘box-tree’ >> Arm. tawsax
​
kalamíndar ‘plane’, kałamax \ kałamał ‘white poplar’
​
​
The various H’s could become r at times, like :
​
*dH2ak^ru- ‘tear’ > Arm. *draćur > *traswǝr > artawsr
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*dH3oru- / *dH2aru- ‘tree’ > *draru > *raru > TB or, pl. ārwa (with reg. *dr > r, dissim. *r-r > 0-r )
​
*bhey- >> *bhey-akHo- > Av. ni-vayaka- ‘fearful’, *bay-akRa- > Kho. haṃ-bālkā ‘fear’, NP bāk
(assuming that suffixes like -i(:)ka- / -a(:)ka- and G. -akhos are due to *-akHo- / *-aHko-, etc.)
​
*kH1esaH2 > Alb. kesë / kezë ‘woman’s head-dress / bonnet / garland’, krezë ‘pistil’
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*kH1is-taH2 > L. crista ‘crest / plume / comb/tuft (on head)’, MIr cess ‘basket / wickerwork causeway / beehive’, Greek kístē ‘box / chest / casket’
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*H2waH1k^-k^oH3no- ‘sharp stone / weapon / (whet)stone / anvil / meteorite’
*xwa(x)ćaxWn- > *xwaśafn- > *xawśafn- > Av. haosafn-aēna- ‘of iron’
*xwaśafn- > *xxWaśafn- > *(R)áfsan(ya-) > Y. rispin, Shu. *ispin > sipin ‘iron’, Munji yispin, Os. æfsæn ‘plowshare’
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*bhaH2-sk^e- ‘tell/speak/boast > be loud/boastful/proud’ > Greek pháskō ‘say/assert/believe’
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*n-bhaH2-sk^e- ‘not speak / not boast > be quiet/modest/ashamed/depressed/indifferent’ > Arm. amač`em ‘feel inferior / be ashamed’, *ënbhaRsk^e- > *ïmwarsk- > TB mrausk- ‘feel an indifference/aversion to the world’
​
​
Other examples of this occur in words not currently seen as cognates. Due to the many *R > *x and *x > *R above, the same changes allow them to be united. I will discuss each case in detail giving evidence for why they should be from the same root.
​
1.
​
*usr- ‘male (animal’ > Skt. usrá- ‘ox / bull’
*wrs- > Skt. (v)ṛṣabhá- ‘bull’
*wrs-en- > L. verrēs ‘boar’, G. Ion. ársēn ‘male’, Skt. vṛ́ṣaṇ-, Li. veršis ‘calf’, Lt. vērsis ‘ox’
*wrs-en- > *wRs-en- > *wxs-en- > *uks-en- > Av. uxšan- ‘bull’, E. ox, PT *wïksö:n > *(w)okso: > TB okso, TA opäs
​
Here, the stage with *xs or *Xs can be seen by dissimilation with *H2 (which also was *X if the above examples can be trusted) in:
​
*paH2-uRson- ‘protecting cattle’
*paX-uXson-
*paX-uXson- *paX-uson- dissimilation of back fricatives OR
*pa-uXson- *paX-uson- dissimilation of back fricatives

*p(a)(H2)u(H2)son-
​
This explains the name’s variants *paH2uson- / *pH2uson- / *puH2son- (possibly also with ablaut) as *X-X > *X-0 or *0-X. It was once simply a generic job title, but it was later the source of several IE gods: *paH2uson- > *pauho:n > Greek Pā́n / Pā́ōn ‘Pan’, *puH2son- > Skt. Pūṣáṇ-, Scythian Pountas, *p(a)uson- > *favsno- > Latin Faunus. *paH2uson- is seen by Prósper as a compound of *paH2- ‘feed / protect’ (often used with animal names to form jobs in -herd), from his functions protecting and strengthening cattle. Thus, originally Cowherd and/or Sheperd God. In my mind, this makes the most sense with the changes above. It also would match the names of similar gods:
​
L. Palēs (a pair who protect flocks/herds), Sicilian Palici, Skt. paśu-pāla- ‘herdsman’
​
Skt. Viśpálā & the Lusitanian goddess Trebopala (*wik^- and *trVb- both meant ‘town, etc.’, apparently “Guarding the Settlement”)
​
The Divine Twins were sometimes also named from *pH2alo- ‘guard / protector’. This might show a relation among the goddess and the twins was put into their names and reveal some of their ancient roles usually not put into poems (which tended to mentioning them saving people (often from waters), instead of protecting herds). Viśpálā was also said to “bestow rewards consisting of 1,000 prizes” (making her like Gaulish Rosmerta or Iranian *Artaxšiyī) and the roles of goddesses including protecting the home, possessions, cattle, and wealth might show either the similarity of these aspects in the minds of ancient people or a conflation of the natures of several goddesses. Instead of a derivative in *-lo-, it might be similar to *p(a)(H2)u(H2)son- in that the movement of *H2 creating -a- vs. -ā- could be due to metathesis in a compound:
​
*lew- ‘seize / possessions / riches?’ >> OCS loviti ‘hunt’, SC lov ‘game animal’, TB luwo ‘animal’
​
*paH2-luwo- ‘protecting animals / cattle’ ? > *paH2-lwo- > *pwaH2-lo- > *paH2-lo- ( > *pH2alo- )
​
​
2.
​
In one group of words (Witczak 2006) :
​
*wrs-n- > *wars-n- > *waxs-n- > H. *wašhan- ‘garlic’
*wrs-n- > *urs-n- > *u(r)sn- > Li. usnìs ‘thistle’, Skt. uṣṇa-s ‘onion’, L. ūniō, *wúržna > Ps. úẓ̌a / ū́ẓ̌a ‘garlic’, Wanetsi múrža, Sog. ’βzn-, Y. wEẓ̌nu, Kh. wǝẓ̌nū / wreẓ̌nù
​
These have been related to:
​
*H1ews- ‘burn’ > L. ūrere, G. *eúh- > heúō ‘singe’, Skt. uṣṇá- ‘hot / acrid’, oṣaṇa- ‘pungent taste / sharp flavor’, oṣaṇī- ‘onion?’
​
but Witczak instead connects them to H. šuppi-wašhar ‘onion’, from *wašhar ‘garlic’ (fairly certain to have existed, as šuppi+ is a calque ‘pure garlic’ of Sumerian sum-sikil). It is possible that both ideas could be true if *H1ews- is related to *H2aws- (in ‘dawn’ & ‘gold’) or that both come from *x(^)wes- (if H1 = x^ and H2 = x or similar). This optionality might also explain *x(^)wers- ‘rain’ > G. (e/a)érsē ‘dew’. Metathesis of some sort seems needed to get *H2aws- > +wašhar anyway. Whatever the origin, *u(r)sn- would come from *Husn-, either *H1usn- or *H2usn-. It seems better to see another case of *H > *R than *r imported from the n-stem. If it only affected 2 IIr. languages in the periphery, it would be an odd distribution, and from the many words for only V-stems ‘onion’, I don’t think most IE retained the C-stem for long. Since Kh. seems to have other examples of *u- > *ü- > we- and (like other Dardic) optionally changed *-V > -u after retroflex C, it seems it was the source of Y. wEẓ̌nu.
​
Cheung, Johnny (2007) Etymological Dictionary of the Iranian Verb
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274417616
​
Cheung, Johnny (2011) Selected Pashto Problems II. Historical Phonology 1: On Vocalism and Etyma
https://www.academia.edu/6502465
​
Kümmel, Martin Joachim (2014) The development of laryngeals in Indo-Iranian
https://www.academia.edu/9352535
​
Kümmel, Martin Joachim (2016) Is ancient old and modern new? Fallacies of attestation and reconstruction (with special focus on Indo-Iranian)
https://www.academia.edu/31147544
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Kümmel, Martin Joachim (2020) “Prothetic h-” in Khotanese and the reconstruction of Proto-Iranic
https://www.academia.edu/44309119
​
Lubotsky, Alexander (1995a) Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European *sk In Indo-Iranian
https://www.academia.edu/428965
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Lubotsky, Alexander (1995b) Sanskrit h < *Dh, Bh
https://www.academia.edu/428975
​
Panaino, Antonio (2017) The Souls of Women in the Zoroastrian Afterlife
https://www.academia.edu/36346591
​
Whalen, Sean (2023) Pashto m- entries by Georg Morgenstierne
https://www.reddit.com/Pashtun/comments/128a24x/pashto_m_entries_by_georg_morgenstierne/
​
Whalen, Sean (2024a) Proto-Indo-European ‘Father’, ‘Mother’, Metathesis
https://www.academia.edu/115434255
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Whalen, Sean (2024b) Indo-European Alternation of *H / *s (Draft)
https://www.academia.edu/114375961
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Whalen, Sean (2024c) Laryngeals, H-Metathesis, H-Aspiration vs. H-Fricatization, and H-Hardening in Indo-Iranian, Greek, and Other Indo-European
https://www.academia.edu/114276820
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Whalen, Sean (2024d)
https://www.reddit.com/mythology/comments/1cdz1no/the_demoness_jah%C4%AB_and_her_indoeuropean_context/
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Whalen, Sean (2024e) Greek Uvular R / q, ks > xs / kx / kR, k / x > k / kh / r, Hk > H / k / kh (Draft)
https://www.academia.edu/115369292
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Witczak, Krzysztof (2006) The Hittite Name for 'Garlic'
https://www.academia.edu/6870991
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