Mitosis vs. meiosis

Just some basic facts to review! GOOD LUCK!

• Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes and used for elimination of waste products.

· Peroxisomes contain H2O2, and breaks down very long fatty acids via Beta Oxidation.
· Microfilaments used in cytokinesis and Microtubules are used in pulling sister chromatids apart (anaphase).
· Prokaryotes (50S +30S) & Eukaryotes (60S +40S)
· Lytic Cycle involves cell lysis whereas lysogenic cycle involves integration into the genome.
· Meiosis I = Reductional Divison (2nn) Meiosis II = Equational Division (nn)
· Crossing over takes place in Prophase I whereas Disjunction (or non-disjunction in abnormal cases) takes place in Anaphase I.
· Primary oocytes are arrested in Prophase I and after menarche, divide into secondary oocyte which is arrested in metaphase II till fertilization.
· Interstitial (or leydig cells) produce testosterone vs Follicles produce estrogen.
· Acrosome reaction helps in the degradation of the zona pellucida whereas cortical reaction helps to prevent polyspermy by increasing intracellular Ca2+ concentration.
· Interneurons are present in polysynaptic relflexes and NOT in monosynaptic reflexes.
· Bronchioles relax and pupils dilate in sympathetic NS whereas bronchioles and pupils constrict in parasympathetic NS.
· Peptide hormones do not need carriers to travel in the blood stream, whereas Steroid hormones do need carriers to travel in the blood stream.
· FSH causes maturation of sperm in males whereas stimulates formation of follicles in females.
· LH causes interstitial cells to secrete testosterone in males whereas it causes ovulation in women.
· Aldosterone (mineralocorticoid) does not change plasma osmolarity and is secretded when blood pressure/volume is low whereas ADH (or vasopressin) decreases plasma osmolarity and is secreted when blood plasma osmolarity is high. Also, ANP is antagonistic to Aldosterone because it promotes excretion of Na+ and water follows.
· Ghrelin (hunger hormone) and Leptin secreted by adipose cells (satiety hormone)
· AA hormones: T3 & T4, NE, Epinephrine
· Steroid hormones: Cortisol, Testosterone, Estrogen, Progesterone, Aldosterone`
· Tidal volume is the volume of air in a normal breath whereas Vital capacity is the diff between (Total Lung Capacity-Residual Volume)
· Muscles used in inhalation are external intercostals, whereas during forced exhalation, muscles used are internal intercostals.
· In acidemia, need to hyperventilate to eliminate CO2
· In alkaelemia, need to hypoventilate to lower the elimination of CO2 to increase H+
· Arteries are thicker walled than Veins.
· Parietal cells secrete HCl and intrinsic factor. Gastrin is secreted by G cells of pyloric glands which stimulate parietal cells.
· CCK stimulates bile and pancreatic juices.
· Fat soluble vitamins: ADEK, Water soluble: B & C
· Descending loop of Henle: only water goes out, Ascending loop: only salts go out
· Gap junctions are present in both cardiac and smooth muscles but not skeletal.
· Ca2+ binds to troponin. ATP binds to myosin heads to detach it from actin.
· Penetrance is the proportion of population with a given phenotype who actually express the phenotype whereas expressivity is the different manifestations of the same genotype across the population.
· Genetic leakage is when individuals from a differnet but closely related species can mate to produce a hybrid offspring and therefore flow of genes occur between two species.
· Bottleneck effect: natural disaster, Founder Effect: a number of individuals of a population separate to form a new colony. Both these effects cause genetic drift in small populations.
· Eosinophils: parasitic infections, Basophils: allergies (histamine)
. Neutrophils (most abundant) & Basophils (least abundant)
· CD4+: MHC II, CD8+: MHC I, CD4: Supressor cells (autoimmune disorders)
· Gap junctions allow ions etc to pass through, desmosomes are used to anchor things together, tight junctions are used to prevent things to pass through. · Heisenberg: momentum & position, Hund’s rule: all orbitals should have at least 1 e, Pauli’s exclusion: opposite spin in paired electrons.
· DNA polymerase only adds nucleotides in the 5’ to 3’ direction.
· Anti sense (non coding) strand (3’ to 5’) is used for transcription.
· Methyguanosine cap at 5’ end and poly A tail at the 3’ end (post translational)
· Glucose-6-phosphate dehydorgenase is used in HMP shunt or PPP pathway. (2NADPH formed)
· Neglect syndrome: damage to the right parietal lobe, ignore left visual field
· Overt and Covert attention: Overt you move your eyes, covert you don’t
· Belief perseverance: still hold on to a belief despite new info to correct it. I’m fat (you’re not)
· Framing bias: the way inforation is presented (glass is half full/half empty)

During mitosis and meiosis, there are two types of chromosime packaging methods: Histone vs Protamine
Most cells condense their DNA with histone packaging during mitosis and meiosis, while only the sperm cells use protamine packaging to condense its chromosomes into even smaller coils. Since most culture cell lines are somatic cells, is it possible to make them condense their chromosomes with protamine packaging instead of histone packaging? Or is the sperm cell line the only way to get protamine-packaged chromosomes?

All I remember is pmat, meiosis is for sex cells, and what metaphase does
Everything else just does not stick in my brain

i did a bunch of readings for h2 bio notes (meiosis mitosis inheritance cell bio cancer sickle cell anemia) but idk how much i managed to retain bc the night before i slept at 3.45am reading and also last min mugging for my amath and ss wa that coincided w sjbo 😅😅
during sjbo i managed to do the qns but bc it was online i wasn’t able to annotate the questions and do process of elimination and the lack of sleep really muddled with my brain and i feel like i got the respiration and cardiac cycle olvl qns fucked up 💀💀 for the alvl syllabus part i tried to do some logical guessing but with vague contextual knowledge from my past readings of the alvl bio notes from holy grail but found that it was quite a lot of application qns w background info.
ibo part of the paper i cmi’ed. 😅 i tried to understand the qns at first and knew some stuff bc of h2 bio or like general bio context from reading up stuff for fun in the past but then i ended up just choosing the ones that felt most ,,different” for certain qns before going back to trying to read and understand the case studies. but because again i couldn’t annotate the paper i feel like i didn’t do as well yikes. also towards the end when i was doing the ibo part of the paper my friends beside me started to like have a bad reaction to their own papers (the friend beside me lit started heavy breathing and then ragequit and left early LMFAOOO) and it kinda distracted me and i ended up just anyhow clicking a few questions bc i got panicked (thoughts of “oh i’m looking like i’m trying so hard here but what if i don’t get anything what’s the point they’ll think i’m stupid”) and prolly kinda sabo’ed myself 😅😅
in the end bc of fatigue and nerves i ended up guessing (but tried to logically guess, think chinese leejiewenda matching words to paragraphs….) and clocked out ~1.5h into the paper.
one of my friends who got gold for another olympiad thinks highly of me (which i appreciate but at the same time idk what to think bc nowadays my self esteem’s really really low and idw jinx myself too) and expects me to get gold for sjbo and also do well for sjcho bc i’m strong in my sciences. and this friend also knows i kinda studied for sjbo (albeit very last minute) but i think they think i mugged for sjbo damn hard even tho i just did some light reading the night before, and this friend believes that i can get gold.
i’m really scared atp i just wanna get honourable mention but higher. kinda pathetic but i downloaded a tarot card app to ask it questions (only 1 per 24h tho) and i keep spamming like “will i get something for sjbo/sjcho, will i get gold, will i get raw 6” and the thing keeps saying yes or maybe and today when i asked they said maybe AND IDK WHETHER IM JINXING MYSELF OR ITS JUST SOME RANDOMLY GENERATED APP CAUSE ALL THE QUESTIONS I ASKED BEFORE WERE ALSO MOSTLY POSITIVE RESPONSES. but dammit i’m so anxious nowadays. i keep thinking about o’s and wa2 and olympiad and i can feel my anxiety and heartrate just rising whenever i do so. LMFOA this is turning into a rant but yeah. my sjbo experience. manifest gold plspslslslslslslslsls

• food tests(starch, protein, lipids, glucose)
• factors effecting rate of diffusion
• enzymes(which, where it is produced, where is it realesed table)
• meiosis and mitosis diffrence
• wind polinated flower vs insect polinated flower diffrence
• what happens to muscles in the eye when: dim and bright light, object far and object near
• magnefication formula
• nitrogen- growth ,repair. phosphate- DNA ,cell membrane. potasium-enzyme reaction
• plant harmones
• reflex arc
• temp regulation: skin hair muscles, sweat glands, blood vessels in surface of skin)
• tiles practicle for enzymes activity and tempreture
• osmosis practicle
• mass and volume potometer
• factors affecting transpiration
• why is transpiration important?
• water uptake by roots
• diet components table, (their effect, what they do etc)
• how villi is adapted for its functions?
• bile function
• peristalsis
• how is alveoli adapted for its function?
• hydrogen carbonate indicator
• stomata function

just SOME commonly asked things u must know :) good luckk

yo guys it’s WA2 week and wednesday is SJBO, and i have a bunch of exams back to back every day as well as SJChO and chinese olevels but anyways that’s not the point lmao.
ive been revising the jc h2 bio syllabus on and off (so only covered dna structure and replication and cell bio and abit of mitosis/meiosis 😅😅) and i understand it well enough but it takes time for me to look through notes to understand haha..
so idk should i ditch wa2 and focus on my olympiads (how likely are you to get gold/sulvebronze for sjbo and sjcho?) and chinese olevels or should i prioritise wa2??
(ALSO if i get awards for olympiads and attempt to dsa to jcs beforehand will i be able to amend my application and if so how much more likely am i to get in?)
(also mb if it’s the wrong tag idk whether to use the o’s tag or the olympiads tag for this

I have a better understanding of genetics than the average person, but I‘m by no means an expert, and I can‘t understand why the internet says the XYY sex chromosome condition known as Jacob‘s syndrome doesn’t end up being hereditary.
I understand that it can occur as a random event during early early pregnancy, and I understand that it can also arise during the production of sperm in meiosis II. What I don’t get, is how a father with XYY sex chromosomes can’t pass this condition on to his sons.
If anyone is willing to read it, here is an explanation of what is going through my head regarding meiosis and a male that was conceived with this condition as a result of random mistake in his own father‘s gamete production.
During Meiosis I, I expect a man with this syndrome to start with a cell containing XYY chromosomes. I‘d expect these chromosomes to duplicate in preparation for meiosis. For prophase I, I expect each chromosome and its duplicate sister chromatid to condense. For Metaphase I, I expect the X (plus its copy), the Y (plus its copy), and the extra Y (plus its copy) to line up in the middle of the cell. For Anaphase I, I expect the X (plus its copy) to be pulled to one side of the cell, I expect the Y (plus its copy) to be pulled to the opposite side of the cell. I expect the extra Y chromosome (plus its copy) to be pulled to either side of the cell. In telophase I, I expect this cell to split into two haploid cells. One cell should contain the X chromosome (plus its copy), the other cell should contain the Y chromosome (plus its copy), and the extra Y chromosome (plus its copy) should end up in one of these two cells.
In meiosis II, these two cells should each undergo a process similar to mitosis, and we should end up with four gamete cells. Given how I‘m assuming meiosis I went though, these four cells could contain the sex chromosome combination of X, Y, XY, and YY.
Normally, I’d expect meiosis to end in four haploids with X, X, Y, and Y. However, for a father with Jacob‘s Syndrome, I would think we end with the aforementioned set of four gametes. This means 25% of the sperm produced by the father has YY sex chromosomes. Any conception from these sperm should yield a zygote with XYY sex chromosomes.
Why then, do my google searches say that a man with Jacob‘s Syndrome has no greater chance of passing his condition on to a son than a normal man has of having a son with Jacob‘s Syndrome? You‘d think that a normal man‘s sperm does not have a 25% rate of yielding YY gametes.

Hello everyone! I am stressing myself out a ton and would greatly appreciate some advice.
I was accepted to WSU this year, and I have been double and triple checking that my prerequisites are covered. I've started worrying that the genetics class I took this year will not fulfill the requirement. However, I can't find any courses nearby or online that appear any better. The class is not listed on their transfer course search tool. I've emailed the admissions office to ask about it, but they weren't much help. I am wondering if anyone who went to WSU could offer some insight.
WSU course description: Principles of modern and classical genetics. Topics that should be covered include basic Mendelian genetics, meiosis, mitosis, chromosome rearrangement, DNA structure and replication, mutations, bacterial and phage genetics, gene regulation, transcription, translation, plasmids, transposons, cloning, population genetics, and evolution.
My course description: This course is designed to provide students with a basic understanding of the principles of prokaryotic and eukaryotic genetics. Emphasis is placed on the molecular basis of heredity, chromosome structure, patterns of Mendelian and non-Mendelian inheritance, and the genetics of human disorders. In this course, students will demonstrate an understanding of the patterns of inheritance by analyzing how DNA, RNA, and proteins contribute to the genotype and phenotype of an organism. Students will apply this knowledge, along with their understanding of classic inheritance patterns, to a range of human genetic disorders.
At the completion of this course students will be able to: 1. Explain the structure of genetic information and how it is translated into the functional molecules of living organisms. 2. Identify, describe and distinguish between common patterns of inheritance. 3. Apply probability concepts to solve genetics problems. 4. Apply genetic principles to produce family pedigrees that illustrate inheritance patterns. 5. Explain the basis of mutations and their potential consequences. 6. Describe the techniques used in genetic screening and testing. 7. Evaluate current ethical, legal and social issues associated with human genetics.
The class also went over plasmids, gene regulation, and cloning, but I don't know if that matters as it is not on the syllabus. I am very worried that I've ruined my one chance of getting into veterinary school.

I feel ridiculous writing this, perhaps it's all the studying frying my brain that has now made me come full circle, but I've come to the realization that one of the most seemingly basic bio concepts, meiosis, is extremely confusing to me.
Namely, that Meiosis I results in haploid daughter cells rather than diploid.
In the past, I had always thought of Meiosis I essentially as Mitosis and the subsequent division is what made it different and haploid, any chance someone out there can explain this?

in a good way i think, i was yelling and crying in public after my mum said like one thing i didn't like (we're fine, she thought it was funny bc i was keeping it in for so long then i just absolutely broke down at her) then my friend from overseas sent me a post about ateez lore(?) that was compared to mitosis then i explained the difference between mitosis and meiosis for the next 7 minutes.
i also fucking hate my university counsellor fuck you saggy tits.

Chromosomes are the fascinating structures that hold the key to our genetic makeup. They are the thread-like molecules found within the nucleus of every cell in our body, carrying the DNA that determines our unique characteristics. In this article, we will explore the intriguing world of chromosomes, focusing on the differences between human skin cells and egg cells. By understanding these differences, we can gain valuable insights into the building blocks of life and the incredible process of reproduction.

Demystifying Chromosomes: The Building Blocks of Inheritance

Chromosomes are the essential components of every cell in our body. They are composed of tightly coiled DNA molecules, which contain the genetic instructions for the development and function of an organism. As Dr. Sarah Thompson, a renowned geneticist, explains, "Chromosomes are the thread-like structures within cells that carry genetic information." Each chromosome is made up of two chromatids, which are identical copies of the DNA molecule, joined together at a point called the centromere.
Chromosomes play a crucial role in the process of cell division and the transmission of genetic information from one generation to the next. During cell division, the chromosomes replicate and separate, ensuring that each new cell receives a complete set of genetic instructions. This process is essential for the growth, development, and repair of our bodies.

The Great Chromosome Count: Unveiling the Difference

How Many Chromosomes Does a Skin Cell Have?

Human skin cells, like most cells in our body, are diploid, meaning they contain two sets of chromosomes. Each set is inherited from one parent, resulting in a total of 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs. These pairs are numbered from 1 to 22, with the 23rd pair being the sex chromosomes, which determine an individual's gender. Females have two X chromosomes, while males have one X and one Y chromosome.
The 46 chromosomes in a skin cell are essential for the proper functioning and maintenance of the skin tissue. They contain the genetic instructions for the production of proteins, enzymes, and other molecules that are necessary for the skin's structure, elasticity, and protective functions. Mirari Doctor specializes in advanced skin care treatments that harness the power of genetics to promote healthy, youthful-looking skin.

Understanding the Egg Cell's Chromosomal Makeup

In contrast to skin cells, human egg cells have a unique chromosomal composition. Egg cells, also known as ova or oocytes, are haploid cells, meaning they contain only one set of chromosomes. This is a critical difference because it allows for the creation of a new, genetically unique individual upon fertilization.
During the formation of egg cells, a special type of cell division called meiosis occurs. Meiosis is a two-step process that reduces the chromosome number by half, resulting in the production of haploid cells. In the case of human egg cells, meiosis results in the formation of cells with 23 single chromosomes, rather than the 23 pairs found in diploid cells.

The Journey of Chromosomes: From Skin to Reproduction

The Importance of Skin Cells: A Barrier and More

Skin cells, despite their difference in chromosome number compared to egg cells, play a vital role in our bodies. The primary function of skin cells is to provide a protective barrier against external factors such as bacteria, viruses, and physical damage. They also help regulate body temperature, maintain hydration, and synthesize essential compounds like vitamin D.
The skin is a complex organ composed of multiple layers, each with its own specific functions. The outermost layer, called the epidermis, is made up of several types of skin cells, including keratinocytes, melanocytes, and Langerhans cells. These cells work together to create a strong, flexible, and resilient barrier that shields our bodies from harm.

The Egg Cell's Role in Creating New Life

Egg cells, with their unique haploid chromosome number, are the foundation for the creation of new life. When an egg cell is fertilized by a sperm cell, which also contains 23 single chromosomes, the resulting zygote will have the full complement of 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs. This genetic combination sets the stage for the development of a new, genetically distinct individual.
"The egg cell, with its unique chromosome number, is essential for creating a new organism," explains Dr. Emily Roberts, a fertility specialist. The process of fertilization marks the beginning of a remarkable journey, as the zygote undergoes rapid cell division and differentiation, eventually giving rise to the complex tissues and organs that make up a human being.

The Bigger Picture: Cell Division and Heredity

To fully understand the significance of the different chromosome numbers in skin cells and egg cells, it is essential to explore the processes of cell division. There are two main types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis is the type of cell division that occurs in most of our body's cells, including skin cells. During mitosis, a cell duplicates its chromosomes and divides into two genetically identical daughter cells, each with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. This process is crucial for the growth, repair, and maintenance of our tissues and organs.
Meiosis, on the other hand, is a specialized type of cell division that occurs only in reproductive cells, such as egg cells and sperm cells. Meiosis involves two rounds of division, resulting in the production of four haploid daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. This reduction in chromosome number is essential for maintaining the correct genetic balance when egg and sperm cells unite during fertilization.

Intriguing Facts About Chromosomes

While the typical human cell contains 46 chromosomes, there are instances where variations in chromosome number can occur. These variations can lead to genetic conditions known as chromosomal abnormalities. Some well-known examples include:

• Down Syndrome: Caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 (trisomy 21)
• Turner Syndrome: Caused by the absence of one X chromosome in females (monosomy X)
• Klinefelter Syndrome: Caused by the presence of an extra X chromosome in males (XXY)

These chromosomal abnormalities can have significant effects on an individual's physical and cognitive development, highlighting the importance of proper chromosome balance in human health.

From Basic Biology to Advanced Concepts

The study of chromosomes has come a long way since their discovery in the late 19th century. One of the most significant advancements in this field is the development of karyotyping. Karyotyping is a technique used to visualize and analyze the chromosomes of an individual. It involves the preparation of a microscopic image of the chromosomes, which are then arranged in pairs and numbered according to their size and structure.
Karyotyping has numerous applications in both research and clinical settings. It can be used to diagnose chromosomal abnormalities, study evolutionary relationships between species, and even assist in the development of targeted therapies for genetic disorders. By providing a detailed picture of an individual's chromosomal makeup, karyotyping has revolutionized our understanding of genetics and its impact on human health.

Unanswered Questions and Future Discoveries

Despite the significant progress made in the field of chromosomal research, there are still many mysteries waiting to be unraveled. Scientists continue to explore the complex relationships between chromosomes, gene expression, and human health. Some of the ongoing areas of research include:

• The role of epigenetic modifications in regulating gene expression
• The impact of chromosomal abnormalities on disease susceptibility and progression
• The potential use of gene therapy to treat genetic disorders
• The influence of environmental factors on chromosomal stability and integrity

As our understanding of chromosomes and their functions continues to expand, we can expect to see groundbreaking discoveries that will shape the future of medicine and improve the lives of individuals affected by genetic conditions.

FAQs

Do all skin cells have the same number of chromosomes?

Yes, most skin cells are diploid and have 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs. This is true for the vast majority of cells in the human body.

Can the number of chromosomes in an egg cell change?

In rare cases, abnormalities during meiosis can result in egg cells with an incorrect number of chromosomes. These abnormalities can lead to genetic conditions if the egg cell is fertilized and develops into an embryo.

How do chromosomes determine our physical traits?

The genes located on chromosomes contain the instructions for the production of proteins, which play a crucial role in determining our physical characteristics. Variations in these genes can lead to differences in traits such as eye color, hair texture, and height.

Is there a connection between skin health and chromosomes?

While there is no direct link between skin health and chromosome number, certain genetic conditions caused by chromosomal abnormalities can affect the skin. For example, individuals with Down Syndrome can have skin-related symptoms, such as dry skin and dermatitis.

What are the implications of chromosome abnormalities in egg cells?

Abnormalities in the number of chromosomes in an egg cell can have significant consequences. If an egg cell with an incorrect number of chromosomes is fertilized, it can lead to genetic conditions in the resulting embryo. Some of these conditions may result in miscarriage, while others can cause developmental disorders or birth defects if the pregnancy is carried to term.

Key Takeaways

• Human skin cells are diploid and contain 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs, while egg cells are haploid and contain 23 single chromosomes.
• Chromosomes are thread-like structures that carry genetic information and play a crucial role in cell division and inheritance.
• Skin cells provide a protective barrier and have various functions beyond their chromosome count, while egg cells are essential for creating new life through fertilization.
• Mitosis and meiosis are two types of cell division that impact chromosome number differently, with meiosis being responsible for the production of haploid gametes.
• Chromosomal abnormalities can lead to genetic conditions, highlighting the importance of proper chromosome balance in human health.
• Ongoing research continues to explore the mysteries of chromosomes and their influence on human health, with the potential for groundbreaking discoveries in the future.

The world of chromosomes is a fascinating one, full of intricate details and profound implications for human life. By understanding the differences between skin cells and egg cells, and the crucial role that chromosomes play in our genetic makeup, we can better appreciate the complexity and beauty of the human body. As science continues to unravel the mysteries of chromosomes, we can look forward to a future where this knowledge is harnessed to improve human health and well-being.

Every now and then I’ll see something about how the US education system is behind compared to a lot of the world. Some would even say what we in the US learn in college is what others learn in their equivalent of high school. I thought maybe they learned a little more, but they’re probably overstating it.
Last fall I decided to pursue higher education, and this semester, I had to take a biology course. It’s a major’s level course (I’m not a bio major, but I’m in a science program, therefore I have to take major’s level science courses). I definitely do not remember going over half of this material in high school. To me it seems we are going in great depth to learn about the basis of life. I work really hard in that class, and I sometimes utilize online resources to study, like Khan Academy. Khan Academy’s HS Biology section has a lot of the same information we learn like the chemistry involved (including polymers), the fluid mosaic model, photosynthesis (in detail), the stages of mitosis and meiosis, etc.
The only thing I remember learning is the scientific method, animal vs plant cells (surface level), organ systems, evolution, types of animals, punnet squares (basic level), and stuff like that. The education was more surface level in comparison. I’ll admit I wasn’t a great student at the time, but I definitely don’t think what we discussed is more than that.
But all the material in Khan Academy’s HS Biology stuff is like ~80% of what we learn in class now, then add in their AP Biology material (they even reference the same textbook we use). Is that really what 14-18 year olds should have learned? Is this really what students in countries with advanced education systems learn? What the hell do these people learn in university? It takes me 8-10 hours a week to study for this one class. What’s going on?

Life science
‭Two organisms that have sexual reproduction and two that have ‬ ‭asexual reproduction.‬
‭Organisms Sexual reproduction‬
‭“Bryophyllum”-is a plant gender of the Crassulaceae family that has‬ ‭sometimes been included within the genus “Kalanchoe”. ‬ ‭Algae (Plant)- the reproductive bodies, either sporangia or sex organs,‬ ‭are unicellular or multicellular and in both all cells are fertile without any‬ ‭sterile cells‬
Organisms‭ ‬Asexual reproduction
Parthenogenesis- is a structure of asexual reproduction in which devel- opment and advancement of embryos occur without fertilization. In creatures, parthenogenesis implies advancement of an incipient organ- ism from an unfertilized egg cell. Parthenogenesis in sharks has been confirmed in the bonnethead. The bonnethead- shark or shovelhead, “Sphyrna tiburo”, is a member of‭ ‬ ‭ ‬the ‭hammerhead shark‬ genus “‭Sphyrna‬”,‭ ‬ ‭ ‬and‭ ‬ ‭ ‬part‭ ‬ ‭ ‬of‭ ‬ ‭ ‬the‭ ‬ ‭ ‬family Sphyrnidae.
Polyporus Squamosus (Fungi)- abiogenetic reproduction occurs by means of vegetative spores or through mycelial fracture. Mycelial frac- ture happens when a contagious mycelium isolates into pieces, and every part develops into a different mycelium. Mycelial discontinuity and vegetative spores maintain clonal populations adjusted to a spe- cific niche, and permit more fast dispersal than sexual proliferation
‭Two organisms that have aerobic respiration and two that have ‬ ‭anaerobic respiration.‬
‭Organisms Aerobic respiration ‬
‭Mycobacterium tuberculosis (bacteria)- is an obligate pathogenic bacte-‬ ‭rial species in the family Mycobacteriaceae and the causative operator of ‬ ‭most cases of tuberculosis.‬
‭Pseudomonas-a genus of gram - negative, carefully, vigorous, motile, ‬ ‭straight or bended bar molded microscopic organisms. ‬ ‭Most species are saprophytic, butsome are pathogenic for plants and an-‬ ‭imals‬
Organisms‭ ‬Anaerobic respiration
Facultative anaerobes -these are microorganisms that are equipped for filling without oxygen. Their energy originates from maturation.
Aerotolerant bacteria -needn't bother with oxygen to develop, yet can get by in its essence.
·‭Which cells are divided by meiosis and which cells are divided by ‬ mitosis‭.‬
Meiosis:‭ Used to make extraordinary cells, ‬ sperm cells and egg cells, that have quite recently a large portion of the typical number of chromosomes. It lessens the number from 23 sets of chromosomes to 23 single chromo- somes. The cell duplicates its chro- mosomes, yet then parts the 23 sets to ensure that every girl cell has just one duplicate of every chromosome
Mitosis:‭ Used to deliver little girl cells that ‬ are hereditarily precisely the equiv- alent to the parent cells. The cell duplicates its chromosomes, and afterward isolates the replicated chromosomes similarly to ensure that every girl cell has a full set. · ·‭What is the importance of metabolism for the cells.‬
A= Significance of digestion systems in cells is amazingly enormous on the grounds that, as we probably am aware, living beings expect energy to finish assignments; digestion is the arrangement of the synthetic responses that discharge energy for cell measures.
·‭Make conclusions about the consulted information.‬ A= There is really awesome, about how the nature act alone and the asexual organism case, they found the way to keep living. All of us are created by this type of microorganisms that have asexual reproduction and thanks for that microorganisms we are alive
Sebastian Gzlz

I took the TEAS 7 test online April 1st and got a 90%, ask me anything! This reddit community was super helpful to me while preparing for the TEAS, so I want to give back!
Here are my score breakdowns:
94.9% - Reading
90.9% - Science
93.9%- English
85.3%- Math
I finished all sections except math with 5-10 minutes to go,-- for math I ran down the clock to the end, but did answer all Qs.
Here was my study strategy:
(background): I am 26 and have been out of school since age 22,-- so while I have taken bio, chem, stats, A&P 1 and 2,--I honestly did not remember a single thing. I am historically very bad at math, and quite good at English/reading. The last time I took a math course (aside from stats, which is not on this test) was almost 9 years ago.
-I took about a month to study.
-I did extensive research and decided on the Mometrix ATI TEAS 7 study guide to be my guiding light in studying. I purchased it on Amazon, here is the link: The Mometrix Study Book I Used . This was one of my wisest choices.
-I skimmed each page of the Mometrix book, underlining as I went. Then I used Quizlet to make flashcards for each section. I ended up with 250+ flashcards for bio/chem, 350+ for A&P, and 30-70 for all other areas. I learn super well with memorization, so this is why I did this. I have linked my Quizlet sets below. Click "folders" "TEAS 2024" and all sets are in there. Keep in my mind these were *my* gaps of knowledge out of all pages of the Mometrix book, and you may have different ones. But if you are low on time, it may be helpful.
My Quizlet Page
-As I skimmed and underlined the book, I also circled concepts I knew I needed to understand, --ones that could not be memorized. How to make a punnet square, how to multiply/divide/subtract/add fractions, how to find slope from an equation, how to simplify fractions, etc. I made a list, and taught myself these things with Khan academy.
-I read a lot of Reddit and added flashcards based on items a lot of folks said were on their tests/were areas you should know for the test. I read articles about what sort of content/concepts are on the TEAS, and added those flashcards to my piles, and that content to my content-to-learn list.
-I fully skipped learning how to balance a chemical equation, the details of photosynthesis, and anything about meiosis/mitosis beyond the fact that meiosis makes 4 non-identical cells and mitosis makes 2 identical ones. This was honestly a little reckless lmao but I hate those topics so much and felt confident in other areas, so I said screw it and didn't study them. idk if it was luck but I didn't have a single Q on any of these subjects.
-Nursehub and Mometrix online practice tests were the main ones I did, and they were excellent. I would use those, but also threw in random websites and I'd recommend practice testing lots. It grows confidence and helps you get used to question styles, as well as ID gaps in your knowledge.
-I am a native English speaker. I mention this because it is an insane advantage on the TEAS test, and affects my studying suggestions. Even if I did not know *why* an English or Reading answer was correct, or what exactly was wrong about it,--I could easily tell with my gut or by asking myself if answer A, answer B, etc., etc., sounded normal. If you are lucky enough to be a native speaker, you can likely use your native fluency to get a lot of the grammar Qs. You will also be able to guess at word meanings when they say "look at context and define ___"--without using context, or the strategy they want you to use but instead thinking of similar words with the same greek roots, and detecting what that root must mean. I have many non-native speaker friends who kicked butt on the TEAS,--it is absolutely possible. I would suggest that perhaps you do more Eng/Reading studying than I did if you are not a native speaker, or not someone who has been speaking English daily for 8+ years.
Here is my top advice:
-This test is not as hard as most practice exams online. You are going to do wonderfully, be confident in yourself! Attitude is everything with testing, make sure you are confident and positive! (I am a pessimist lol so me telling you to be positive is a legit recommendation).
-Go pee before the exam,--I did not get the halfway break the exam said it would give, and neither have countless folks online. Do not expect that break. Be *well-fed* *well-hydrated* and *go pee* beforehand. Tbh you won't need it most likely, this exam is not as intense as it is rumored to be, but make sure you don't expect that break.
-Read each question twice, and *consider each answer option*. GO SLOW. EAT UP THE TIME THEY GIVE YOU. Even if the question is "what is 1+1" and the first answer choice is "2"--consider each answer. Often there are multiple "right" answers, but one that is best of all. Reading each Q twice and considering each option caused me to catch what would've been multiple missed Qs on the exam due to reading Qs quick, or jumping to the first answer that made sense. They know folks read Qs quick, and select the first answer that makes sense, and they will take full advantage of that to trick you.
-If you are testing at home, use a fan/white noise machine/air filter is one is available to you. It helps your brain focus, and prevents you getting distracted by roomates/people on the street/etc.
-Do a lot of practice tests. Especially with the reading section. The NurseHub and Mometrix online practice tests taught me a lot of random stuff that showed up on the TEAS. For ex: a common Q is what the tone of the passage is--and (unbeknownst to me)- if words like "we" and "us" are used, it is pretty much automatically considered an empathetic tone, no matter how much other tones might fit. Another is "how can we best adjust this passage to fit diverse audiences"--which I assumed meant "take out super complicated words and medical terms so a normal person could understand--since a diverse audience has folks from all backgrounds, and this text is super technical". That is not what they mean at all. They mean make it as politically correct as humanely possible,--keep the super complicated medical terms. There are a lot of random things like that in the reading section.
Topics I noticed HEAVILY on the TEAS test, that you MUST know:
-75% of the math questions involved knowing how to do: "what percent of ____ is _____"
and "___ is what % of x". 75% I kid you not. Know how to do this, inside out, backwards and forwards.
-The math section was heavy on word problems, practice these so you feel confident. Do not only practice Qs that give you numbers. Practice scenario-based math Qs.
-Adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing fractions. Even if you think you know this, practice so you are fast and confident.
-I cannot stress enough how much you must know how to convert between fractions, decimals, and percentages. 80% of the math Qs involved this as a step. Even if you think you know this, practice so you are fast and confident. Being fast on the "small stuff" = more time for Qs that you don't know
-Suffixes were featured heavily on the English section, 4-5 Qs out of the 32-something questions. Make sure you know what they are, how to identify them, and some meanings of common ones.
-Know what "past present" and "present perfect" tenses are. These weren't on practice tests but were littered throughout the English section.
-Mean, median, mode, and range. 90% of the people I know got a Q involving this on their TEAS.
-Know conversions from metric to US measurements. They won't usually give you the conversion (which is stupid). Almost everybody gets 1-2 conversion Qs. I memorized: Fahrenheit to Celsius, and Celsius to Fahrenheit (on test). How many mL in a liter. How many lb is a kg. How many feet in a yard. How many CM in an inch. How many miles in a Km. How many milimeters in a meter. How many oz in a lb. How many Ft in a mile. How many pints vs quarts in a gallon? How many cups is 1 gallon? 1 liter is how many quarts?
I didn't encounter a single conversion I didn't know.
PRACTICE YOUR CONVERSIONS!! Being quick on small stuff = more time for the hard problems!

Does DNA replication only occur in preparation for meiosis/mitosis (S phase of interphase)? kind of a basic concept but I was having a hard time thinking of/finding any other times when DNA would replicate. thanks

1)Chromatid duplication happen only once in meiosis
2)DNA replication take place in mitosis instead of chromatid duplication
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Statement 1:- prophase of meiosis 1 typically longer and more complex when compare to prophase of mitosis.
Statement 2:- syncytium condition can be observed in liquid endosperm in coconut.

I'm by no means an expert but I think many people (even some experts) misrepresent or misunderstand what AI actually means.
That leads to the unintended strawman:
AGI is not possible with the current models, because they're just a glorified search engine!
The thing here is that, people assume that AGI will have to have some motivations. It will move on its own, make decisions and if we insult it, it could decide to wipe humanity off the planet.
I would say that AGI will actually be very close to what we have now - something static, immovable, with no motivations of its own. That will not wipe anybody out, at best it can give you very good advice.
Because what you're talking about, when you discuss "wiping humanity off the planet", isn't just "Intelligence"- you're talking about artificial life. Just like an insect moves on its own, to eat and replicate. It's not intelligent. But it moves, on its own. And it can be a danger to you.
On the contrary, something can be intelligent, but not move. There is no impetus for AGI to do anything, unless you ask it.
And of course, you could add extra programming, maybe insert the AGI into a robot and give it some motivation, some goal - if you program "replicate yourself ad infinitum!" now you're basically trying to make artificial life. But it's not about intelligence. That robot could be relatively stupid and still follow your programming. Intelligence is a separate problem entirely.
So my point is, I don't think AGI or ASI poses any risk to humans "because it's intelligent". The risk comes when you start adding motivations, such as "replicate yourself" (akin to mitosis, meiosis in biology) or "defend yourself / somebody" or other. Then you make an intelligent "Golem" into a force that becomes unpredictable. Again, the point isn't intelligence, it's the motivation you programmed into it.
In addition, my other point is, what we currently have is actually intelligent. It doesn't have to have a soul, consciousness or sentience. It's just able to give intelligent and rational answers to many questions. Mind you, many humans are unable to give rational answers to some questions - you would still think they're intelligent life - even somebody with IQ 80 or brain damage.