After 6 months my mom started to struggle with Duolingo. Too many tenses including past tense "have + verb". I would like to her to learn words first with present simple, continues and also including past simple.is there a way to fix it in Duolingo or going to another app you could recommend me?

Bonsoir! I'm a beginner in French. I'm confused about when to use the 'eu' when using 'avoir' in the following sentence.

For example, is it correct to say - J'ai eu parle'? Thus, using 'avoir' in the present tense (J'ai) and past tense (eu) and then the past participle of the main verb, being parler (parle')?

Please excuse the absence of apostrophes, I'm on an English keyboard. Merci!

For those not aware, a copula is a type of verb like “to be” that joins the subject of the verb with a complement.
In Standard Punjabi, only ਹੈ / ہے hai and ਹਨ / ہان han are used but in Theth Punjabi, there are many words that may be used according to dialect and accent.
In this post I’ll go over them in the present tense as I’ve already made such posts for the past and future tenses. (:
ਵਾ / واہ vā
This is used mostly in Majhi, but is also present in Potohari, as well as in Hindko and some Doabi sub-dialects.
ਗਾ / گا gā
This on the other hand, is limited to Malwai and not heard of in any other dialect.
ਯਾ / یا yā
This is used mostly in Doabi, but sometimes in other dialects too.
ਮਾ / ماں mā
This is used in Puadhi and some Malwai sub-dialects. It is a derivation of ਵਾ / واہ vā
ਆ / آہ ā
This is used everywhere in Punjab and is nasalized to ਆਂ / آں ã to form plurals.
ਹੈਗਾ / ہیگا haigā
This is present in every Eastern dialect of Punjabi though there may be slight differences in its usage. It’s actually a copula used to mark possession but is sometimes used outside of that. Unlike the others, it also has a feminine form ਹੈਗੀ / ہیگی haigī and plural forms as well those being ਹੈਗੇ / ‎ہیج haige and ਹੈਗੀਆਂ / ہیگایا haigīã respectively.
ਏ / اے ae
This is another word that is universally present. Its plural is ਨੇ / نے ne
ਵੇ / و ve
This is a Jatki exclusive form of ਏ / اے ae It does use the plural in its original form though.
ਹਈ / ہائے hayī
This is used in all of the Western dialects.
ਜੇ / جے je
This is used commonly in Western Majhi, but also in Jatki and Eastern Majhi.
ਹੈਪਿਆ / ہیپیا haipyā
This is also solely used in Jatki, and is the same as ਹੈਗਾ / ہیگا haigā

This is my first time posting here so let me know if I'm doing anything wrong, should give more info, etc.
I've been working on my first (so-far unnamed) conlang for the past two years for a worldbuilding project. I recently had the idea that it would be good to create a family of languages around the one I currently have. Since my Conlang is still in the relatively early stages (I have most of a phonology and a handful of simple words, very little actual grammar besides for planned features) and I'd rather not start completely from scratch (it did take a two years to get to this point after all), I figured it'd be easiest to "reverse-evolve" what I already have to get a proto-lang, and then normal-evolve that to get multiple conlangs that I could actually use. One of my main goals is naturalism, so I would greatly appreciate feedback on how to improve what I have, but my main question is as to how I might go about constructing a Proto-lang based on my current work, so that I can flesh both of them out to point where they're actually usable.
The phonology (or what there is of it) of my conlang is mostly based on Old Norse and Icelandic, and is as follows:

Phonology

Phonemes

Consonants

	Labial	Dental	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	m		(n̥) n		(ŋ)
Stop	p b		t d		k (ɡ)
Fricative	f v	θ ð	s (z)	(ç)	x ɣ	(h)
Approximant	(ʍ) w			j	(ʍ) w
Rhotic			(ɾ̥) ɾ
Lateral			(ɬ) l		(ɫ)

Symbols in parentheses represent allophones
I'm a little on the fence about including /v/

Vowels

Monophthongs

	Front Unrounded	Front Rounded	Central	Back
High	i iː	y yː		u uː
Mid	e eː	ø øː		o oː
Low	æ æː		a aː	ɒ ɒː

I'm also on the fence about including /ɒ ɒː/

Diphthongs

/ai̯ au̯ ei̯ oi̯ øi̯/ (idk how you're supposed to organize diphthongs in a table)

Gemination

Some consonants can be geminated in syllables codas (especially word-final) or cross syllabically. The consonants that can geminate in coda positions are /m n p t k f s ɣ ɾ l/. All of these, as well as /b d θ ð/, can also be geminated over a syllable boundary, i.e. when one syllable ends with the same consonant the next syllable begins with.

Phonotactics

General Syllable Structure: (C/sP̥)(v)V(C)⁴
P̥ represents a voiceless plosive /p t k/
R represents a sonorant /m n w j ɾ l/
Syllabic consonants can only occur word-finally, and only /n ɾ l/ can be syllabic

Allophony

I've come up with a handful of rules for allophonic variation. Here are are a few of them:
x → h / #_
ɣ → ɡ / {#,n}_
n → ŋ / _{k,ɣ}
x{n,w,j,ɾ,l} → {n̥,ʍ,ç,ɾ̥,ɬ}
ɾɾ → rː

Grammar

Again, I don't really have much in the way of grammar, but these are some of the features I hope to include in this conlang:

• 5 Noun cases: Nominative, Accusative, Dative, Instrumental, Genitive
• Clusivity in 1st-person plural pronouns, possibly eveolved from a dual-plural distinction (if that's realistic)
• Masculine, feminine, and neuter genders (only present in 3rd-person singular pronouns)
• Proximal-medial-distal distinction in demonstratives
• Vowel gradation in verb conjugations, most likely to mark tense-aspect-mood

Once again, I am mainly wondering how to "reverse" the state of my Conlang to get a Proto-language that I could flesh out more before evolving it into a more complete Conlang. Any advice or feedback on anything I have shared or mentioned would be immensely appreciated.

Westphalian
The westphalian language (not to be confused with the real world westphalian dialect group) is an ingvaeonic language spoken in, well, westphalia. It developed closely with the anglo-frisian languages, though is not one in itself, merely sharing some commonalities with the branch.
Phonology: (i tried to display this in a table, but reddit sucks, so take a list instead)
Consonants
m,n,ŋ,
p,b,t,d,k,g,
f,v,s,z,ʃ,x,h,
ɹ,j,[ɰ],
ɾ,l
Vowels
ɪ,ʏ,ʊ,
ø:,
ə,
ɛ(:),œ,ɔ(:),
a(:)
There are also 4 diphthongs! Those being /eɪ̯/, /aɪ̯/, /œʏ̯/, and /oʊ̯/.
Grammar:
The grammar is quite simplified from its Proto-West-Germanic origins, with nouns having 4 total stems they could be. Those being (using PG derivative terminology) the a-stem, ō-stem, n-stem, and r-stem. The r-stem, though, only contains seven kinship terms. Whilst the a-stem and ō-stem are direct descendants from PG, the n-stem is more of a combination stem of multiple stems ending in *-n. Nouns in westphalian are divided into two genders, common and neuter.
In terms of cases, nouns (and adjectives) can only inflect for two, those being the nominative and objective. The genitive is maintained though, in pronouns. Apart from that, nouns (again, and adjectives), also inflect for the numbers singular and plural.
I will move on to adjectives first, as it is an easier bridge from nouns. Adjectives only have one inflection pattern, instead of the multiple stems nouns could have, and this inflects for all the same things as nouns, but also strong/weak inflection, the predicative, and positive/comparative/superlative. Standard stuff.
Verbs also only have one weak inflection pattern left, though there are still some strong verbs that have different inflection patterns, the vast majority are weak verbs, which inflect using the same pattern. This pattern inflects for a few things, let's begin with person. It inflects for 1PS, 2PS, 3PS, and a general plural form. In terms of tenses, there is the present and past tense (more can be expressed using auxiliaries, this is just what they inflect for). Moods consist of the indicative, subjunctive, and imperative. Apart from that, they also have an infinitive, and a present and past participle.
Examples:
"Welcome to the westphalian language!"
Wilkowm tå de westfuylske språk!
/ˈvɪl.koʊ̯m tɔː də ˈvɛst.fœʏ̯ɰ.ʃə sprɔːk/
"The cold winter is near, a snowstorm will come. Come in my warm house, my friend. Welcome! Come here, sing and dance, eat and drink. That is my plan. We have water, beer, and milk fresh from the cow. Oh, and warm soup!"
De selte winter is neh, een sneastuyrm skoll kuymen. Kuym in mijn werm huys, mijn frent. Wilkowm! Kuym heer, sing en dans, eed en drink. Dat is mijn plan. Wij hebben wader, ber, en meelk frisk von de koo. Oh, en werme suyp!
/də zɛɰtə ˈvɪn.təɹ ɪs neɪ̯ - eɪ̯n ˈsnɛː.stœʏ̯ɹm ʃɔl ˈkœʏ̯.mən - kœʏ̯m ɪn maɪ̯n vɛɹm hœʏ̯s - maɪ̯n fɾɛnt - vɪɰkoʊ̯m - kœʏ̯m heɪ̯ɹ - zɪŋ ɛn dans - eɪ̯d ɛn dɾɪŋk - dat ɪs maɪ̯n plan - vaɪ̯ ˈhɛ.bən ˈvaː.ɾəɹ - bɛɹ - ɛn meɪ̯ɰk fɾɪʃ vɔn də kɔː - oʊ̯ - ɛn vɛɹmə sœʏ̯p/

It's been a while since I've posted here (maybe 2 years?) but I'm back and ready to share a little something I've been working on with Corinian, my conlang. After being spread wayyy too thin over hundreds of half-assed conlangs, I thought it'd be nice to scrap everything and work on a conlang that's actually used in my main world's plot.
I usually like making posteriori conlangs, but you might be able to tell there's a sprinkle of Ibero-Romance in here. Either because I like the Ibero-Romance languages or its the sense of impending doom plaguing my mind as my Spanish final nears. Who knows, really.
Background: So, just a bit of background. Corinian is based off the Modern High Corinian variety, which descended from Early High Corinian. Between Early High Corinian and Modern Corinian, it's verb conjugation changed a lot.

• Proto-Coric (predecessor) > Early Corinian varieties > Modern Corinian

Early High Corinian made distinctions between person and put less of an importance on number, conjugating only for the speaker and the direct addressee while lumping everything else into a separate category. So, Early High Corinian made a distinction between 1SG, 2SG, and 3SG/3PL/1PL/2PL, but only for the present. The nonpresent tenses derived from subjunctive, nonfinite inflections, with only a very recent distinction between 2SG and non-2SG in the future tense.

Tense	1SG	2SG	3SG.M, 3SG.F, 3PL, 1PL, 2PL
Past	-in	-in	-in
Present	-a, -Ø (used in reflexives)	-us	-ra
Future	-ura	-urse	-ura

Above are only the perfective conjugations. Early High Corinian also had a set of imperfectives, as shown below:

Tense	1SG	2SG	3SG.M, 3SG.F, 3PL, 1PL, 2PL
Past	-uzèc	-uzèc	-uzèc
Present	-tèc	-tusèc	-tarèc
Future	-orèc	-orsèc	-orèc

The imperfective aspect was only used in the presence of specific adverbs. An example:

Eu pazia aubàgi-atèc. 1SG.NOM repetitively run -1.PRES.IMPFV /eu pazjɐ ɐubadʒɐtɯk/ 

Compared to the perfective (no adverb):

Eu aubàgi-atèc 1SG.NOM run -1SG.PRES.PFV /eu ɐubadʒɐtɯk/ 

Ultimately, the imperfective aspect would be lost and merge with the perfective in Modern Corinian. Simple stuff, but it gets worse so for the sake of my sanity I'll only be focusing on the perfective present in Modern Corinian.
Split-Marked-Nominative Alignment
The proto-language had a split-ergative alignment, but was corrupted in Early High Corinian so that certain verbs triggered a marked-nominative alignment while others stuck to the prototypical nominative-accusative alignment.
Generally, everything was prototypically NOM-ACC except for stative and reflexive verbs.

Person and Number	Nominative/Unmkd. accusative (ABS)	Accusative/Marked nominative	Reflexive
1SG	eu	qui	-co
1PL	fo	hom	-na
2SG	ma	ne	-ma
3SG.M	què	quèl	-clèi
3SG.F	qui	quèl	-clèi
3PL	bran	feis	-vis

I'll focus on using a 1SG subject/actor and a 2SG object.
Types of Infinitives
Early High Corinian had several "types" of infinitive suffixes that followed the phonological rules of the root. It also had fusional "reflexive infinitives" which denoted that the verb required a reflexive pronoun.

Infinitive type	Vowels/semivowels	All other consonants	/n/, /s/, /ʃ/, /z/, /ʒ/, /l/	/m/
Simple Infinitives	-rc	-rèc	-trèc	-prèc
Reflexive Infinitives	-rèlc	-rèlc	-trèlc	-prèlc

Reflexive infinitives have an "open" and "closed" form depending on if the verb has a direct object or not.
With Early High Corinian's alignment, TAM, and infinitive types in mind, I'll throw out a few examples of some typical patterns found in Early High Corinian. Then I'll get into how they evolve.
Verb Type Matrix
Early High Corinian does not have polypersonal agreement so there's not much of a difference between the conjugation of transitive and intransitive verbs. By "not much," I mean there still are minor differences between transitive and intransitive verb conjugation in Modern Corinian. I'll use a 1SG subject/actor, 2SG object, and look at three ambivalent verbs: distrèc "to want (protoypical NOM-ACC)," dirantrèc "to make blue (Marked-NOM)," and checrèlc "to like (Marked-NOM; reflexive)."
Root of distrèc: dis- /dis-/
Root of dirantrèc: diran- /dirɐn-/
Root of checrèlc: chec- /tʃek-/
Finite (Prototypical NOM-ACC; distrèc "to want")

Eu dis -a ne. 1SG.NOM want-1.PRES.PFV 2SG.ACC /eu disɐ ne/ "I want you." 

Finite (Marked-NOM dirantrèc; "to make blue")

Qui diran -a ma. 1SG.NOM.MARKED make.blue-1.PRES.PFV 2SG.ABS /ki diranɐ ma/ "I make you turn blue." 

Nonfinite (Prototypical NOM-ACC; distrèc "to want")

Eu dis -a dis -trèc ne. 1SG.NOM want-1.PRES.PFV want-INF 2SG.ACC /eu disɐ distɾɯk ne/ "I want to want you." 

Nonfinite (Marked-NOM; dirantrèc "to make blue")

Eu dis -a diran -trèc da ma. 1SG.NOM want-1.PRES.PFV make.blue-INF DAT 2SG.ABS /eu disɐ dirantɾɯk da ne/ "I want to make you turn blue." 

The "dative" da is only used with the direct object of a nonfinite ergative-absolutive verb. Da is only every used in situations like this, as the true dative rec is used more frequently.
Finite Reflexive (Mixed alignment; checrèlc "to like")

Qui chec-Ø -co ne. 1SG.NOM.MARKED like-PRES.PFV-1SG.REFL 2SG.ACC /ki tʃekko ne/ "I like you." 

You might notice here that the marked nominative and the prototypical accusative are both used here. Early High Corinian also has this third type of pronominal alignment.
Nonfinite Reflexive (Mixed alignment; checrèlc "to like")

Eu dis -a chec-rè -co ne. 1SG.NOM want-1.PRES.PFV like-INF-1SG.REFL 2SG.ACC /eu disɐ tʃekɾɯko ne/ "I want to like you." 

Part 1/? Done
Hopefully I've explained Early High Corinian's complex conjugation system well, and I'm happy to be back here conlanging again! I'll eventually go over how Early High Corinian evolved into Modern Corinian and the grammatical changes it experienced. See you soon!

Watching OZ for the first time and I'm wondering was the first 5 seasons past tense from the perspective of Augustus Hill's eyes and the actual present time of the series actually season 6? Only thought it because Hill left a personal written memoir of his life and experiences being in OZ and he been working on it for 6 years. And he also acknowledges himself as dead first episode of final season alongside being surrounded by familiar faces that died off in previous seasons. Or am I looking at it too deep?

Good evening, readers. I apologise for the longer-than-expected delay and general inactivity between the publishing of this essay and my last one. I hope that you are not bothered by it, because I cannot promise to increase the frequency of my essays.
With that out of the way, let us proceed to talk about tʷink grammar. If you haven’t already, please read my previous two essays about tʷink phonology and syntax. Those will give you a lot of context as to what the tʷink language is. If you choose to read this without reading the previous essays, please be prepared to be very confused as I will assume that you will have read my two previous essays.

Nouns

tʷink nouns are relatively simple, especially compared to the rest of the grammar, because they do not get declined for anything other than the obligatory classifiers demonstrated in the table below:

	Noun	Pronoun
Human	qʷa-	wa-
Object	ʔiws-	ʔih-
Idea	dam/n-	da-

To see an example of the classifiers being used, read the sentence below:
wamuʔʔa siɣ
CLF-HMN-go-1P many
We are going.

Notes

•The declensions in the second column are only used for pronouns

Verbs

In comparison, tʷink verbs are far more complex, as evidenced by the fact that they decline for person, number and tense. They are so complex that you could make entire sentences using just a single word. To see the charts for person, number and tense, see below:

	1st Person	2nd Person	3rd Person
Nominative	-t(a)	-(h)an	-aħt/ħat
Accusative	-tix	-(h)anix	-aħtix/ħatix

	Perfective	Imperfective
Past	-ginʔ	-(h)inʔ
Present	-g(a)	-
Future	-gakah	-kah

Notes

•Some verbs are irregular and do not follow these prescribed patterns, such as the verb muʔ, meaning to go

Ending Message

This essay only covers the basics of tʷink grammar, and there are still more details I have yet to talk about. If you have any questions or constructive criticism, feel free to tell me. Otherwise, I hope that any supernatural beings between now and the next time to care for you.

Discord: jperez
Email: [jperezonline@outlook.com](mailto:jperezonline@outlook.com)
Hola, ¿qué tal? My name is Jhon Pérez, a native Spanish tutor with over 10 years of experience in Spanish homework. I can help you with any type of Spanish assignments: exams, quizzes, tests, worksheets and essays.
I've done many accounts on VHL Central, McGraw Hill, Blackboard, Canvas, MyLabs, Cengage, Desire2Learn, ELEteca, Edgenuity, Contraseña, WileyPlus and more.
Besides being a native Spanish speaker, I have knowledge of vocabulary, functional grammar and the functions of all levels of Spanish (Beginners A1-A2, Intermediate B1-B2 and Advanced C1-C2.)
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Unlike other Spanish tutors, I will provide you with safe, untraceable VPN connection to your closest location and follow your instruction(s) to deliver plagiarism-free Spanish papers.
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Discord: jperez
Email: [jperezonline@outlook.com](mailto:jperezonline@outlook.com)
Hola, ¿qué tal? My name is Jhon Pérez, a native Spanish tutor with over 10 years of experience in Spanish homework. I can help you with any type of Spanish assignments: exams, quizzes, tests, worksheets and essays.
I've done many accounts on VHL Central, McGraw Hill, Blackboard, Canvas, MyLabs, Cengage, Desire2Learn, ELEteca, Edgenuity, Contraseña, WileyPlus and more.
Besides being a native Spanish speaker, I have knowledge of vocabulary, functional grammar and the functions of all levels of Spanish (Beginners A1-A2, Intermediate B1-B2 and Advanced C1-C2.)
I can work with login, TeamViewer and screenshots. If you choose the latter I will make sure to be online at the agreed time to work with you (you send the screenshots and I send the answers.)
This is not an agency. It's just me, the Spanish tutor, so you don't have to pay double fees (one to the agency owner and another to the tutor.)
Unlike other Spanish tutors, I will provide you with safe, untraceable VPN connection to your closest location and follow your instruction(s) to deliver plagiarism-free Spanish papers.
For tight deadlines I can deliver the same day as long as I am contacted at least 4 hours before deadline.
My rates are pocket-friendly and flexible to fit your budget. You can use milestone payments or pay as you go.
Proof and vouches can be seen on my profile.
Send your prompt and get a quote today!
Email: [jperezonline@outlook.com](mailto:jperezonline@outlook.com)
Discord: jperez
¡Nos vemos!

Discord: jperez
Email: [jperezonline@outlook.com](mailto:jperezonline@outlook.com)
Hola, ¿qué tal? My name is Jhon Pérez, a native Spanish tutor with over 10 years of experience in Spanish homework. I can help you with any type of Spanish assignments: exams, quizzes, tests, worksheets and essays.
I've done many accounts on VHL Central, McGraw Hill, Blackboard, Canvas, MyLabs, Cengage, Desire2Learn, ELEteca, Edgenuity, Contraseña, WileyPlus and more.
Besides being a native Spanish speaker, I have knowledge of vocabulary, functional grammar and the functions of all levels of Spanish (Beginners A1-A2, Intermediate B1-B2 and Advanced C1-C2.)
I can work with login, TeamViewer and screenshots. If you choose the latter I will make sure to be online at the agreed time to work with you (you send the screenshots and I send the answers.)
This is not an agency. It's just me, the Spanish tutor, so you don't have to pay double fees (one to the agency owner and another to the tutor.)
Unlike other Spanish tutors, I will provide you with safe, untraceable VPN connection to your closest location and follow your instruction(s) to deliver plagiarism-free Spanish papers.
For tight deadlines I can deliver the same day as long as I am contacted at least 4 hours before deadline.
My rates are pocket-friendly and flexible to fit your budget. You can use milestone payments or pay as you go.
Proof and vouches can be seen on my profile.
Send your prompt and get a quote today!
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Discord: jperez
¡Nos vemos!

Discord: jperez
Email: [jperezonline@outlook.com](mailto:jperezonline@outlook.com)
Hola, ¿qué tal? My name is Jhon Pérez, a native Spanish tutor with over 10 years of experience in Spanish homework. I can help you with any type of Spanish assignments: exams, quizzes, tests, worksheets and essays.
I've done many accounts on VHL Central, McGraw Hill, Blackboard, Canvas, MyLabs, Cengage, Desire2Learn, ELEteca, Edgenuity, Contraseña, WileyPlus and more.
Besides being a native Spanish speaker, I have knowledge of vocabulary, functional grammar and the functions of all levels of Spanish (Beginners A1-A2, Intermediate B1-B2 and Advanced C1-C2.)
I can work with login, TeamViewer and screenshots. If you choose the latter I will make sure to be online at the agreed time to work with you (you send the screenshots and I send the answers.)
This is not an agency. It's just me, the Spanish tutor, so you don't have to pay double fees (one to the agency owner and another to the tutor.)
Unlike other Spanish tutors, I will provide you with safe, untraceable VPN connection to your closest location and follow your instruction(s) to deliver plagiarism-free Spanish papers.
For tight deadlines I can deliver the same day as long as I am contacted at least 4 hours before deadline.
My rates are pocket-friendly and flexible to fit your budget. You can use milestone payments or pay as you go.
Proof and vouches can be seen on my profile.
Send your prompt and get a quote today!
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Discord: jperez
¡Nos vemos!

Discord: jperez
Email: [jperezonline@outlook.com](mailto:jperezonline@outlook.com)
Hola, ¿qué tal? My name is Jhon Pérez, a native Spanish tutor with over 10 years of experience in Spanish homework. I can help you with any type of Spanish assignments: exams, quizzes, tests, worksheets and essays.
I've done many accounts on VHL Central, McGraw Hill, Blackboard, Canvas, MyLabs, Cengage, Desire2Learn, ELEteca, Edgenuity, Contraseña, WileyPlus and more.
Besides being a native Spanish speaker, I have knowledge of vocabulary, functional grammar and the functions of all levels of Spanish (Beginners A1-A2, Intermediate B1-B2 and Advanced C1-C2.)
I can work with login, TeamViewer and screenshots. If you choose the latter I will make sure to be online at the agreed time to work with you (you send the screenshots and I send the answers.)
This is not an agency. It's just me, the Spanish tutor, so you don't have to pay double fees (one to the agency owner and another to the tutor.)
Unlike other Spanish tutors, I will provide you with safe, untraceable VPN connection to your closest location and follow your instruction(s) to deliver plagiarism-free Spanish papers.
For tight deadlines I can deliver the same day as long as I am contacted at least 4 hours before deadline.
My rates are pocket-friendly and flexible to fit your budget. You can use milestone payments or pay as you go.
Proof and vouches can be seen on my profile.
Send your prompt and get a quote today!
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Discord: jperez
¡Nos vemos!

Hey folks, I've spent months learning how to read and write Arabic while getting past basic introductions but I want to learn how to make sentences but can't seem to find a good source on discovering new verbs. I found a good source, "Learn Arabic with Asmae", on YouTube but other than her, I can't make new sentences as other people give your generic teaching formats and they don't give you the calligraphy sometimes and just some Latinized letters but I already know how to read! I want to learn how to use verbs in the present tense and I prefer using colloquial verbs from Egypt or Levantine dialects, place help!

Hi everyone,
I hope you’re all doing well! I’m currently working on my first Anki deck and have a question: How important is the verb tense of the words I include? Should I start by learning them primarily in the present tense, or does the tense not really matter?
Thanks in advance for your advice!

Hi. I'm trying to get back into reading Pali after a long hiatus, but I'm really rusty.
This line is from the chant of the Five Recollections here. I feel fairly confident about the rest of the text of the chant, but am unsure about the how the plural ablatives(?) and the compounds ending in -bhāvo work together to create the sentence below. Any help would be much appreciated.

Sabbehi me piyehi manāpehi nānā-bhāvo vinā-bhāvo.
I will grow different, separate from all that is dear & appealing to me.

My main questions are: How does this mean what it means? And what is the significance of using -bhāva here insread of -dhamma, as in the preceding three lines?

Jarā-dhammo'mhi jaraṁ anatīto.
Byādhi-dhammo'mhi byādhiṁ anatīto.
Maraṇa-dhammo'mhi maraṇaṁ anatīto.

In case it's of interest, here's how I've been trying to work it out more specifically:
Are the -ehi endings ablative plurals here?
Is the particle "me" a genitive or dative ("my" or "to me") modifying the whole phrase "sabbehi piyehi manāpehi". So "from all (sabba) my (me) dear and pleasing [things] ? Or is this particle serving som other function?
And are the -bhāvo compounds bahubbihi (exocentric) compounds with the implied subject "I"? So, "I am someone with the nature/condition (bhāva) to be/become different from (ablative -ehi), separate from, all that to me is dear and pleasing?
If so, is the subject "I" understood because that was the explicit subject of the three preceding lines?
And if so, what is the significance of using "bhāva" here instead of "dhamma", as in the three preceding lines?
Is the use of bhāva related to why this in translated in the future tense, unlike in the three preceding lines which are translated in the present tense?
Or am I way off base and there is another way to parse this?
The preceding three lines had an explicit first-person singular verb form "amhi" ≈ "asmi"
Jarā-dhammo'mhi
Literally "I am one whose nature (dhamma) is aging

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¡Hola, amigos!
Welcome to our weekly Spanish lesson! Today, we’re going to dive into some essential Spanish verbs and their basic conjugations. This is crucial for anyone starting their Spanish language journey, as verbs form the backbone of most conversations.

This Day's Focus: Regular Verbs in the Present Tense

We’ll start with three critical verbs that are regular and follow typical conjugation patterns: hablar (to speak), comer (to eat), and vivir (to live).

1. Hablar (to speak)

• Yo hablo
• Tú hablas
• Él/Ella/Usted habla
• Nosotros/Nosotras hablamos
• Vosotros/Vosotras habláis (mainly used in Spain)
• Ellos/Ellas/Ustedes hablan

2. Comer (to eat)

• Yo como
• Tú comes
• Él/Ella/Usted come
• Nosotros/Nosotras comemos
• Vosotros/Vosotras coméis (mainly used in Spain)
• Ellos/Ellas/Ustedes comen

3. Vivir (to live)

• Yo vivo
• Tú vives
• Él/Ella/Usted vive
• Nosotros/Nosotras vivimos
• Vosotros/Vosotras vivís (mainly used in Spain)
• Ellos/Ellas/Ustedes viven

How To Practice:

Go to Get-Pal.com to chat with Pal on WhatsApp to practice. Start the conversation by saying "I live in the US"

Discussion Question:

What verbs do you find most useful or challenging? Share your thoughts and any questions you have about other verbs or conjugations.

I'm not asking what the current version of "correct" is. I'm asking how we got here, with this hopeless entanglement?
Edit: My question refers in part to the overlap of forms (lay as present tense of one verb and paste tense of a second verb) but also to the similarity of meaning — to rest on another surface (lie) and to rest something on another surface (lay) — one an action resulting in the other, with a hint of an ergative verb, except that the tense changes: I lay the book on the shelf => the book lay on the shelf. Are the two verbs we try to distinguish today remnants of a single ancestor whose variants in certain forms achieved niche uses* and eventually were regarded as separate verbs? When was the attempt made to freeze the forms?
*(like "hanged" vs "hung")

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Chapter 19: Four-Legged
Gribble's bare feet pounded against the wet ground, splashing through puddles and squelching in the mud. His heart thundered in his chest, threatening to burst out of his ribcage with every frantic beat. The dark, damp forest closed in around him, the trees looming like silent sentinels in the gloom. Above, the sky rumbled ominously, the sound echoing through the woods like a warning.
Raindrops pattered against the leaves overhead, the light drizzle gradually soaking through Gribble's clothes and mingling with the sweat that beaded on his skin. He gulped in lungfuls of air, the earthy scent of the forest filling his nostrils - the petrichor of rain on soil, the green aroma of the trees, the musty odor of decaying leaves underfoot. In another time, another place, it might have been a comforting smell. But here, now, with danger nipping at his heels, it was little more than a fleeting distraction from the terror that consumed him.
"Gotta keep going," he panted, his voice barely a whisper. "Can't let them catch me."
The goblins and trolls were hot on his heels, and Gribble knew he couldn't afford to slow down. The forest was his only chance to escape, and he was determined to make it count. He pushed himself harder, ignoring the burning in his lungs and the ache in his muscles.
The heavens opened up, unleashing a torrential downpour that battered against the forest canopy. Fat droplets burst through the leaves, pelting Gribble's skin like icy needles. His tattered clothes, already hanging off his lean frame in shreds, were drenched within seconds, the fabric clinging to his body like a second skin.
The deluge blurred his vision, reducing the world to a hazy mess of greens and grays. Gribble squinted against the rain, blinking rapidly to clear his eyes, but it was a losing battle. The path ahead disappeared, swallowed up by the murky gloom, and he stumbled blindly forward, his steps faltering on the slick, uneven ground.
But Gribble refused to let the storm halt his desperate flight. He gritted his teeth, determination burning in his chest like a flame, and pushed onward. One foot in front of the other, one step at a time, he forged ahead, his mind focused on a single, all-consuming goal: escape. Grimrock's forces were out there somewhere, searching for him, hunting him like a fox before the hounds. He couldn't let them catch him. He wouldn't.
So he ran, and he kept running, even as the rain pounded against his back and the wind howled in his ears. He ran until his lungs burned and his muscles screamed in protest, until the forest was a blur of green and brown around him. He ran, and he didn't stop.
"Come on, Gribble," he urged himself. "You can do this. Just keep moving."
The rain was a mixed blessing. On the one hand, it helped to cover his tracks and hide his scent. But on the other hand, it made the ground slippery and treacherous. Gribble lost his footing more than once, catching himself just in time to avoid a nasty fall.
Suddenly, a flash of lightning lit up the forest, and Gribble saw something that made his heart leap with hope. There, in the side of a nearby hill, was a dark opening - a cave that could offer him shelter from the storm.
"A cave!" he exclaimed, his eyes wide. "Maybe I can hide in there, just for a little while."
He hesitated for a moment, wondering if the cave might be dangerous. But another crack of thunder made up his mind for him. He couldn't stay out in the open, not with the storm getting worse and his enemies getting closer. The cave was a risk he had to take.
Gribble scrambled towards the cave, his heart pounding in his ears as the thunder crashed around him. The rain pelted his face, making it hard to see, but he didn't let that stop him. He slipped and slid on the wet ground, nearly losing his balance several times.
"Almost there," he panted, his eyes fixed on the cave's entrance. "Just a little further."
The mouth of the cave loomed ahead of him, a dark and forbidding hole in the hillside. Gribble's mind raced with thoughts of what might be waiting for him inside, but he pushed them aside. Whatever the cave held, it couldn't be worse than what was behind him. His lungs burned and his muscles screamed in protest, but he refused to slow down. He was so close to safety, so close to a moment's rest.
As he reached the cave's entrance, Gribble paused for a moment, peering into the darkness. It seemed empty, and he knew he had no choice but to go inside. The sound of the rain and thunder faded as he stepped over the threshold, replaced by an eerie stillness. Gribble blinked, trying to adjust to the sudden change in light.
"Hello?" he called out, his voice echoing off the cave walls. "Is anyone there?"
Only silence answered him, and Gribble let out a sigh of relief. He was alone, at least for now.
His heart was still racing, and he took a few deep breaths, trying to calm himself. He knew he couldn't let his guard down, not even for a moment, but the relief of being out of the storm was overwhelming.
Gribble stepped further into the cave, shivering from the cold and exhaustion. The sound of the rain and thunder became muffled, and he allowed himself a moment to catch his breath, leaning against the damp stone wall. The rough surface scraped against his skin, but he barely noticed. His mind was swirling with emotions - fear, relief, desperation, and a tiny spark of hope.
"I can't believe I made it," he whispered, his voice trembling. "I thought for sure they were going to catch me."
He knew he couldn't stay in the cave forever, but for now, it was the closest thing to safety he'd known in a long time. He closed his eyes, letting the coolness of the stone seep into his skin, grounding him in the present moment.
As his eyes adjusted to the dim light, Gribble took a look around the cave. It was small but deep, with a low ceiling and narrow passages leading further into the hillside. The floor was uneven, with loose rocks and pebbles scattered about. He could make out the faint shapes of stalactites hanging from the ceiling, their tips glistening with moisture.
"Wow," Gribble breathed, his eyes wide with wonder. "I've never seen anything like this before."
The air was heavy with the scent of damp earth and something else, something Gribble couldn't quite identify. He shivered, pulling his tattered clothes tighter around himself. The cave may have provided shelter from the storm, but it was far from comfortable. Gribble knew he'd have to keep moving soon, but for now, he allowed himself a moment to rest and gather his strength.
Just as he was starting to relax, Gribble saw a flicker of movement out of the corner of his eye. At the mouth of the cave, a dark, shadowy figure appeared. Gribble's heart leapt into his throat, and he froze, his body going rigid with fear.
"Who's there?" he called out, his voice shaking. "Show yourself!"
He squinted, trying to make out more details, but the figure was backlit by the dim light from the entrance, making it impossible to see clearly. Gribble's mind raced with possibilities. Was it another goblin? A troll? Something even worse? He held his breath, not daring to make a sound. The figure didn't seem to have noticed him yet, but Gribble knew that could change at any moment. He cursed silently, realizing that his moment of rest may have just put him in even greater danger.
As Gribble watched, his heart pounding, he realized that the figure was crawling on four legs, moving with a predatory grace that sent a chill down his spine. It was unlike anything he had ever seen before, and a sense of dread washed over him. He could hear the faint click of claws against stone, and he shuddered, realizing that whatever this thing was, it wasn't friendly.
"Oh no," Gribble whispered, his eyes wide with fear. "What is that thing?"
His mind raced, trying to come up with a plan, but he was trapped in the cave with nowhere to run. Gribble's body was tired and he didn't think he had the strength to summon the vines, and he knew he was no match for the creature in terms of strength or speed. His only hope was to stay still and silent, praying that the figure would pass him by.
Gribble pressed himself against the cave wall, hardly daring to breathe as he watched the mysterious creature make its way into the cave. Its eyes glinted in the darkness, reflecting the dim light from the entrance. Gribble's heart was pounding so hard he was sure the creature must be able to hear it, but he didn't dare move.
"Please don't see me," he prayed silently, his hands trembling. "Please just go away."
The figure paused, its head swiveling from side to side as if searching for something. Gribble held his breath, his body trembling with the effort of staying still. The creature took another step forward, and Gribble could see the outline of its muscular body, the way its shoulders rippled with each movement. He closed his eyes, silently begging for the creature to go away, to leave him alone. But deep down, Gribble knew that his luck had run out. Whatever happened next, he was on his own.
Trapped in the cave with nowhere to run, Gribble's mind raced as he tried to come up with a plan. He knew he was no match for the creature in terms of strength or speed, and he was too exhausted to summon any powers. His eyes darted around, searching for anything he could use as a weapon or a means of escape. But the cave was empty, with nothing but rocks and shadows.
"Think, Gribble, think," he muttered to himself, his brow furrowed in concentration. "There's got to be a way out of this."
He cursed his own foolishness for not being more prepared, for not having a backup plan. He'd always relied on his wits and his powers to get him out of trouble, but now, faced with an unknown enemy in an unfamiliar place, Gribble realized just how vulnerable he truly was. He took a deep breath, trying to steady his nerves. He knew he couldn't give up, not after everything he'd been through. Gribble steeled himself, ready to fight or flee, whatever it took to survive.
As the silhouetted figure drew closer, Gribble's heart pounded frantically in his chest. He held his breath, hoping against hope that the creature hadn't noticed him yet. His mind was reeling, trying to find a way out of this terrifying situation, but deep down, he knew that his options were limited.
"Come on, Gribble," he whispered to himself, his fists clenched at his sides. "You can do this. You've faced worse than this before."
The figure was almost upon him now, and Gribble could see the glint of teeth in the darkness, the flash of claws against stone. He braced himself, ready for the attack, ready for the pain and the fear and the desperate struggle for survival. But even as he faced this new threat, Gribble felt a flicker of something else, something he hadn't felt in a long time: hope.
"I've survived the dungeon, the goblins, and the trolls," Gribble said aloud, his voice growing stronger with each word. "I've fought my way through the storm and the forest. And now, faced with yet another challenge, I know that I have the strength to keep going, to keep fighting, no matter what."
He may be small, but he wasn't alone. The cave, the forest, the earth itself - they were all on his side, all part of the same unbreakable will that drove him forward. And with that knowledge, Gribble faced the silhouetted figure, ready for whatever came next.
"Bring it on," Gribble said, his eyes narrowing with determination. "I'm not going down without a fight."
The creature took another step forward, its claws scraping against the stone. Gribble tensed, every muscle in his body coiled and ready to spring into action. He didn't know what was going to happen next, but he knew one thing for sure: he wasn't going to give up. Not now, not ever.

Alright. I last discussed Câynqasang here, where I covered noun case and quirky subject. Also, here's the first overview post. This time, I'm going to give an overview of verbs in the language. I'll touch on the major points, but there might be a good deal of detail that ends up being beyond the scope of this. I intend to cover the auxiliary verbs, other methods of tense marking, and, by nature of the basic tenses, person marking. Also, I've already discussed the verb classes in a previous post because they're linked to some functions of the case system, but I'll cover that briefly again here. Participles and other features derived from them, however, are mostly beyond the scope of this post, though some will appear in example sentences because both can appear in constructions involving auxiliary verbs.

Verb Classes

Câynqasang verbs belong to four classes, largely (though not exclusively!) determined by their meaning. As I detailed in my most recent post, they trigger a good deal of quirky subject, which I will briefly touch on again here. All may take subjects in the vocative case for imperative constructions, and I will briefly detail other options below.
Action verbs include most verbs in the language. These typically deal in concrete actions and in senses which don't fit in one of the other three categories. The subject of a sentence containing them may take case marking for reflexive constructions or volition marking. Examples:

• nyu [ŋo] "to have" (This is the alienable form. The inalienable "have", ê [eː], is a stative verb.)
• gno [ɣno] "to drink"
• sman [smɐn] "to dig"
• cûl [t͡ʃɪːl] "to bite"

Motion verbs typically deal with motion, though this operates in some broad senses, as we'll see. The subject of a sentence containing them takes prepositional cases to indicate the direction of the motion. Examples:

• lan [lɐn] "to sit"
• ngûyinytinyu [ˈŋɪːjiŋtiŋu] "to inject"
• hînû [ˈxɪːniː] "to fight"
• lâmvu [ˈlɐːmu] "to cross, traverse"

Stative verbs most often deal with states of being, though some irregularity can occur within this class as well. The subject of a sentence containing them takes case marking to indicate volition. Examples:

• gla [ɣla] "to sleep"
• kalîng [kaˈlɪːŋ] "to hydrate" (This has an additional sense as a noun, "waterfall")
• îny [ɪːŋ] "to pray" (one of the wilder examples)
• calom [t͡saˈlɔm] "to rain" (also the noun "rain"; yes, weather is often handled with stative verbs)

Perception verbs typically deal with the senses, though especially this class has some unexpected things and fun exceptions. The subject of a sentence containing them is actually unable to take the nominative case, mandating other marking to indicate reflexives or volition. Examples:

• tiptâ [tiptaː] "to learn"
• sunyu [suŋo] "to love" (considered an act of perception rather than a state! Many emotional states are handled this way)
• tkâranco [tkɐːrant͡su] "to sabotage" (one of the wilder ones, this one explained by semantic drift from "to deceive")
• mngôny [mŋɔːŋ] "to know"

Agreement and the Basic Tenses

Verbs mark for singular, paucal, and plural number and first, second, and third person. Here is a table of the basic endings:
https://preview.redd.it/ndrsdre6l40d1.png?width=800&format=png&auto=webp&s=0164ebde6d9c6657589ea6422de9ae1a512d6ce2
The basic past and future tenses are marked with suffixes -tûl- and -nqi- respectively, attaching before the person agreement (and in some cases here, though not many in this case, sound changes have eroded the original form). The basic stem of verbs is considered to be perfective. The imperfective is marked with what once was a simple reduplication of the onset and nucleus of the first syllable, though that relationship has been heavily obscured by sound changes in many verbs. I'll give a few examples of reduplicated stems from the verbs I listed above, as well as one more:

• memngôny- [memˈŋɔːŋ] IPFV-know
• kakllîng- [kakˈlɪːŋ] IPFV-hydrate
• hîyînû- [ˈxɪːjiːniː] IPFV-fight

These are relatively straightforward reduplicated stems, though that last does retain a /j/ lost in the original stem and each example here has a vowel that's unpredictable from the remaining stem. However, a lot worse is possible. For example:

• ti [ti] "to dream" > koti- [kuti] IPFV-dream

Câynqasang's sound changes make things weird sometimes.
I'll give a couple quick example sentences to show how this all works in context:
Mka mngônytûlvu nê cêh. [mka ˈmŋɔːŋtiːlvu neː t͡ʃɛːx] 1S.DAT know-PST-1S DEF.SPEC.P 3P "I always knew these things against my will". (Dative case here means unwilling.)
Vo amdî titkârancomdû i êlak. [vo amˈdiː titˈkɐːrant͡sumdiː i ˈɛːlak] INDEF.NSPEC 3S.INS IPFV-sabotage-3S DEF.SPEC airlock "Someone is sabotaging the airlock." (Here, the indefinite nonspecific article means this is an unknown party; if it was one of a known group of people doing this, definite nonspecific ve would take its place.)
Moving on.

Auxiliary Verbs, Tense, and Other Stuff

Câynqasang has an extensive set of auxiliary verbs that handle more complex tense, aspect, and mood in addition to negation and the passive voice. These are one of the areas where the differences between the formal and informal registers are most visible. I'll give the formal and then the informal forms:
Formal:
Main Auxiliary
https://preview.redd.it/8mivjgfpp40d1.png?width=1221&format=png&auto=webp&s=c7782643b3a8aa68519a94eda8ff3601295d910e
Negative Auxiliary
https://preview.redd.it/1hzmiy7tp40d1.png?width=1228&format=png&auto=webp&s=c74a5edcb34618b5c3da140763f07a72acd557e6
Passive Auxiliary
https://preview.redd.it/0atqspxwp40d1.png?width=1228&format=png&auto=webp&s=a8b8696f3d3996766dd49ef7c5f563907b9ae6bd
Main auxiliary (informal)
https://preview.redd.it/xmuvwfe0q40d1.png?width=1236&format=png&auto=webp&s=a705b0c340c5acfe2fd4d1d43daade0e75379348
Negative auxiliary (informal)
https://preview.redd.it/oglmiic2q40d1.png?width=1222&format=png&auto=webp&s=b6675c0f29082e79d2559c84bdd50e2803bede1b
Passive auxiliary (informal)
https://preview.redd.it/ssxjxya4q40d1.png?width=1211&format=png&auto=webp&s=651ad5fa11c313b54bc485c6b5a0a73ac6341044
Note the additional degree of fusion in the informal register, and the reduction of some syllables such that none of the informal register forms are more than disyllabic.
In constructions, these precede the lexical verb, and the lexical verb takes a participle or a converb. Again, couple of example sentences:
No ôngsa sîtêla no, nang ôngsa vînray kîvrongtadêv nê cêh. [no ˈɔːŋsa ˈʃɪːteːla no, nɐŋ ˈɔːŋsa ˈvɪːnraj ˈkɪːvruŋtadeːv neː t͡ʃɛːx] 2P.DAT NEG.2P see-CONV.GEN 2P.DAT 2P.INS NEG.2P HORT confirm-PTCP DEF.SPEC.P 3P "Not having seen these things for yourselves, you ought not to confirm them."
This example has one clause that uses a converb with the negative auxiliary and one that uses the present participle with the hortative form of the negative auxiliary, in the formal register this two-part ôngsa vînray situation. Another example:
Ye i côl sanqe kamesîtêl, yâkînghê ola lamnyunqicêh, [je i t͡sɔːl saˈɴe kameˈʃɪːteːl ˈjɐːkiːŋxeː uˈla lamŋuɴiˈt͡ʃɛːx] And DEF.SPEC 3P.GEN PERF.3P happen-CONV.GEN soul-P 1P.GEN peaceful-FUT.3P "And having felt all of these things come to pass, our souls will know peace,"
The broader work I pulled this from uses the informal register just about exclusively despite some of its other formatting. This example here includes a converb clause with an auxiliary.
So, that's a quick and dirty overview of verbs in Câynqasang, Sometime in the future I'll dive into converbs, relativization, derivational morphology, or some other feature of the language, or maybe I'll get more specific about the lexicon or about some of the uses of a feature I've already covered. Thanks for reading!