Understanding "Este," "Ese," and "Aquel" in Spanish

When learning Spanish, one of the fundamental aspects to grasp is the use of demonstrative adjectives. These adjectives - "este," "ese," and "aquel" - are used to point out nouns and are akin to the English "this" and "that." However, Spanish adds an extra layer of specificity by indicating not only the proximity to the speaker but also to the listener.

1. Este (This)

"Este" (and its variants: "esta" for feminine singular, "estos" for masculine plural, and "estas" for feminine plural) is used to refer to something that is close to the speaker.

• Masculine singular: Este libro (This book)
• Feminine singular: Esta casa (This house)
• Masculine plural: Estos perros (These dogs)
• Feminine plural: Estas flores (These flowers)

2. Ese (That, close to the listener)

"Ese" (with variants "esa," "esos," and "esas") is used for something that is closer to the listener but not necessarily close to the speaker. Think of it as indicating a mid-range distance.

• Masculine singular: Ese coche (That car [near you])
• Feminine singular: Esa silla (That chair [near you])
• Masculine plural: Esos árboles (Those trees [near you])
• Feminine plural: Esas ventanas (Those windows [near you])

3. Aquel (That, over there)

"Aquel" (along with "aquella," "aquellos," and "aquellas") is reserved for things that are far away from both the speaker and the listener. It emphasizes a greater distance.

• Masculine singular: Aquel edificio (That building [over there])
• Feminine singular: Aquella montaña (That mountain [over there])
• Masculine plural: Aquellos niños (Those boys [over there])
• Feminine plural: Aquellas estrellas (Those stars [over there])

Examples in Context

• Este lápiz es azul. (This pencil is blue. [close to the speaker])
• Ese perro es tuyo. (That dog is yours. [closer to the listener])
• Aquel avión es grande. (That plane over there is big. [far from both])

The appropriate use of "este," "ese," and "aquel" can improve your Spanish communication by making your descriptions more precise.

Practice with Pal

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For example, you could write: "Esa casa es muy bonita." (That house [closer to the listener] is very pretty.)
C. Pal will check your sentence for any errors and provide corrections if needed. Continue the conversation with Pal to practice even more, and soon, you'll be using these demonstrative adjectives like a native! If you struggle to create a sentence, feel free to ask Pal for assistance.
By using Pal, you can ensure you’re practicing daily, catching mistakes early, and improving steadily. Happy learning!

How to Differentiate "Bueno" (Good) from "Bien" (Well) in Spanish

Understanding the difference between "bueno" and "bien" can be a little tricky for English speakers because both translate to "good" or "well". However, their usage depends on the context. Let's explore the distinctions:

Bueno (Good)

• Part of Speech: Adjective
• Usage: "Bueno" describes nouns (people, places, things, or ideas).
• Forms: "Bueno" (masculine singular), "buena" (feminine singular), "buenos" (masculine plural), "buenas" (feminine plural).
• Example:
  • "Este libro es bueno." (This book is good.)
  • "Ella es una buena amiga." (She is a good friend.)

Bien (Well)

• Part of Speech: Adverb
• Usage: "Bien" describes verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. It indicates how something is done or the state of being.
• Forms: "Bien" does not change form.
• Example:
  • "Él canta bien." (He sings well.)
  • "Estoy bien." (I am well.)

Key Tips for Remembering:

1. Context Is Key: Use "bueno" or its variations to describe a noun directly.
2. Modify Verbs/Adjectives: Use "bien" to describe how an action is performed or the state of something.

Common Mistakes:

• Incorrect: "Me siento bueno." (Which would imply "I feel good" in a physical, possibly morally superior sense.)
• Correct: "Me siento bien." (This means "I feel well," indicating your health or mood.)

By internalizing these tips, you can correctly choose between "bueno" and "bien" while forming sentences.

Practice with Pal

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Keep practicing with Pal to become fluent and comfortable with these commonly confused words!

Understanding the Difference between "Muy" (Very) and "Mucho" (A Lot) in Spanish

When learning Spanish, one critical aspect is understanding how to use "muy" and "mucho" correctly. Both words translate to "very" or "a lot" in English but are used in different contexts. Here's a simple guide to help you master their usage.

1. How to Use "Muy"

"Muy" is equivalent to "very" in English and is used to modify adjectives and adverbs.
Examples:

• Adjectives:
  • La casa es muy grande. (The house is very big.)
  • Estoy muy cansado. (I am very tired.)
• Adverbs:
  • Ella corre muy rápido. (She runs very fast.)
  • Hablas muy bien español. (You speak Spanish very well.)

2. How to Use "Mucho" / "Mucha" / "Muchos" / "Muchas"

"Mucho" translates to "a lot," "much," or "many" and is used to modify nouns or verbs. It must agree in gender (masculine/feminine) and number (singulaplural) with the noun it modifies.
Examples:

• As a Noun Modifier:
  
  • Tengo mucho dinero. (I have a lot of money.)
  • Hay mucha comida. (There is a lot of food.)
  • Tienes muchos amigos. (You have many friends.)
  • No hay muchas sillas. (There aren’t many chairs.)
• As a Verb Modifier:
  
  • Trabajas mucho. (You work a lot.)
  • Estudio mucho para los exámenes. (I study a lot for exams.)

Quick Tip: "Muy" never changes its form, while "mucho" changes according to the gender and number of the noun it modifies.

Practice with Pal

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2. Think of a sentence where you would use "muy" or "mucho." For example, try to describe your daily routine, or something you do frequently.
3. Send this sentence to Pal. For example:
   • "Estoy muy cansado porque trabajo mucho."
4. Pal will correct you if there are any mistakes and encourage you to continue the conversation to practice and improve your skills. If you’re stuck, ask Pal to give you more examples or explanations.

Pal is your conversational partner that ensures you practice Spanish every day, helping you become fluent faster. Happy learning!

The Role of Definite and Indefinite Articles in Spanish: A Quick Guide

Learning how to use definite and indefinite articles in Spanish is essential for building correct and fluent sentences. These articles help specify whether you are referring to something specific or something more general.

Definite Articles

In Spanish, definite articles are equivalent to the English word "the." There are four types of definite articles, and they must agree in gender and number with the noun they modify:

• El: Used with singular masculine nouns
  • Example: El libro (The book)
• La: Used with singular feminine nouns
  • Example: La mesa (The table)
• Los: Used with plural masculine or mixed-gender nouns
  • Example: Los libros (The books)
• Las: Used with plural feminine nouns
  • Example: Las mesas (The tables)

Indefinite Articles

Indefinite articles are used when referring to an unspecified item or items, similar to "a," "an," or "some" in English. Spanish has four forms of indefinite articles:

• Un: Used with singular masculine nouns
  • Example: Un libro (A book)
• Una: Used with singular feminine nouns
  • Example: Una mesa (A table)
• Unos: Used with plural masculine or mixed-gender nouns
  • Example: Unos libros (Some books)
• Unas: Used with plural feminine nouns
  • Example: Unas mesas (Some tables)

Choosing the Right Article

• Specificity: Use definite articles when you’re talking about a specific item known to both the speaker and the listener.
  • Voy a leer el libro (I am going to read the book)
• Generalization: Use indefinite articles for mentioning an unspecified item.
  • Voy a leer un libro (I am going to read a book)

Practice with Pal

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=BACKGROUND=

Gwýsene ⟪ثِتونج ځوېٓسِنہ⟫ ⟨th'Tundj Gwýsene⟩ /θɛˈtund͡ʒ ˈʝyːzɛnɛ/ (or "the least Germanic Germanic language") is a Germanic language descendant from Old English spoken in Nabataea (modern-day Jordan, Sinai, and northwestern Saudi Arabia). It takes place in a timeline where the Anglo-Saxons get kicked out of Britain by the Celts, therefore they sail all the way to Nabataea (I pride myself on my realism here) and settle there. Most of them eventually convert to Islam, and, as a consequence, Arabic becomes elevated to the language of academia, nobility, and poetry.
"English" as we know it still survives in-timeline as Englisc — basically Middle English with some modifications — spoken as a minority language in southeastern Britain (or Pritani as the Celts call it in-world).
==ETYMOLOGY OF GWÝSENE==
⟨Gwýsene⟩ ⟪ځوېٓسِنہ⟫ is derived from ځوېٓسِن (Gwýsen) + ـہ- (-e, adjectival suffix), the former from Middle Gwýsene جِٔويسّمَن (ɣewissman), a fossilization of جِٔويسّ (ɣewiss, "Geuisse") + مُن (mon, "man"), from Old Gwýsene יוש מן (yws mn, yewisse monn), from Old English Ġewisse monn.
⟨Tundj⟩ ⟪تونج⟫ is loaned from an Arabized pronunciation of Old Gwýsene תנג (tng, tunge) (from which descends the doublet ⟨Togg⟩ ⟪تُځّ⟫ /toɣ(ː)/, "tongue")
The Englisc exonym is ⟨Eizmenasisc⟩ /ɛjzmɛˈnaːsɪʃ/, From Brithonech (in-world Conlang) Euuzmenasech /ˈøʏzmə̃næsɛx/, from Middle French Yœssmanes /ˈjœssmanɛs/ (hence modern in-world French Yœssmanes /jœsman/ and Aquitanian (in-world) ⟨Yissmanes⟩ /ˈiːsmans/), from Middle (High) German \jewissmaneisch (hence modern in-world German *Jewissmännisch** /jəˌvɪsˈmɛnɪʃ/, Saxon Jewissmannisch /jɛˌvɪsˈma.nɪʃ/, and Hollandish Iweesmanis /iˈʋeːsmanɪs/), Ultimately from Middle Gwýsene جِٔويسّمَن (ɣewissman). Doublet of Englisc ⟨iwis mon⟩ /ɪˈwɪs mɔn/ + ⟨-isc⟩ /-ɪʃ/

=PHONOLOGY=

Consonants	Labial	Dental	Alveolar	Post-Alveolar	Palatal	Velar
Nasal	/m/		/n/
Plosive/Affricate	/p/ /b/		/t/ /d/	/t͡ʃ/ /d͡ʒ/¹		/k/ (/g/)²
Fricative	/f/ /v/	/θ/ /ð/	/s/ /z/	/ʃ/ /ʒ/¹	(/ç/)³ (/ʝ/)³	/x/ /ɣ/
Tap/Trill			/ɾ/ /r/
Approximant	/w/		/ɹ/ (/l/)⁴		/j/	/ɫ/

Vowels	Front	Central	Back
Close	/i/ /iː/ /y/ /yː/		/u/¹ /uː/¹
Near-Close	(/ɪ/)⁵ (/ʏ/)⁵
Mid	/e/ /eː/ /ø/ /øː/		/o/ /oː/
Open-Mid	(/ɛ/)⁵	(/ɐ/)⁵	(/ɔ/)⁵
Open	/æ/ /æː/		/ɑ/ /ɑː/

1. Nonnative phonemes
2. allophone of /k/ inter-vocalically
3. allophones of /x/ /ɣ/ near front vowels
4. allophone of /ɫ/ when not near any back vowels and/or velar consonants.
5. allophones in unstressed syllables

These are the phonemes of Standard Gwýsene, and, expectedly, they differ from dialect to dialect.
==EVOLUTION FROM OLD ENGLISH==
The Phonological evolution from Old English to Old Gwýsene are as follows:

• /g/ /j/ => /ɣ~ʝ/
• /h/ => /x/
• /f/ /θ/ /s/ => /v/ /ð/ /z/ word-internally
• /l/ => /ɫ/
• /x/ /ɣ/ => /ç/ /ʝ/ near /i/ /e/ /ø/
• /eo/ /eːo̯/ => /iɔ̯/ /iːɔ̯/
• /æɑ/ /æːɑ̯/ => /iɐ̯/ /iːɐ̯/
• /iy/ /y/ => /ø/
• /iːy̯/ => /øː/

From Old Gwýsene to Middle Gwýsene:

• /ŋk/ /ŋg/ => /kː/ /ɣː/
• /w̥/ /r̥/ /l̥/ /n̥/ => /fː/ /sː/ /ʃː/ /nː/
• /-çt/ /-xt/ => /-ç/ /-x/
• /r/ => /ɹ~ɻ/ post-vocalically
• /iɔ̯/ /iːɔ̯/ => /iɐ̯/ /iːɐ̯/
• /i/ /y/ /u/ => /ɪ/ /œ/ /ʊ/ when unstressed
• /e/ /ø/ /o/ => /ɛ/ /ɛ/ /ɔ/ when unstressed
• /æ/ /ɑ/ => /ɐ/ /ɐ/ when unstressed

From Middle Gwýsene to Modern Gwýsene:

• /p/ /t/ /k/ /b/ /d/ => /b/ /d/ /g/ /v/ /z/ word-internally
• /p/ /t/ /k/ /b/ /d/ => /f/ /s/ /x/ /v/ /z/ word-finally
• /wi/ => /wy/ => /yː/
• /ɪ/ /œ/ /ʊ/ => /ɛ/ /ʏ/ /ɔ/
• /ɔ/ => /ɐ/
• /i(ː)/ /u(ː)/ => /y(ː)/ /o(ː)/
• /o(ː)/ /æ(ː)/ /ɑ(ː)/ => /ɑ(ː)/ /e(ː)/ /æ(ː)/
• (/æː/ /uː/ => /i/ /ɑ/ in open syllables)
• /eː/ => /i/
• /iɐ̯/ /iːɐ̯/ => /eː/ /iː/

==DIALECT GROUPS==
Gwýsene has 4 main dialect groupings:
1- Southern Dialects
Spoken around in-world Áglästrélz /ˈɑːɣɫɐˌstɾeːɫz/ [ˈɑːʁɫ(ə)ˌsd̥ɾeːɫz]. Speakers of these dialects tend to pronounce:

• /Vm/ /Vn/ /Vɫ/ as syllabic [N̩] [ɫ̩]
• /ɹ~ɻ/ as [ɰ] in non-rhotic accents
• /w/ as [ɥ] near front vowels
• /p/ /t/ /k/ as [pʰ] [tʰ] [kʰ]
• /p/ /t/ /k/ as [b̥] [d̥] [g̊] word-internally
• /ɛ/ /ɐ/ as [ə]

Regarded as the oldest dialect by Gwýsens as it encompasses the original "homeland" (if we don't count the Anglo-Saxons that is). They're also considered the most "posh", and the standard accent is loosely based on the southern dialects.
2- Central Dialects
Spoken around in-world Keü-Nüvátra /keʏ ˌnʏˈvɑːtɾɐ/ [kɛɨ ˌnɨˈvɒːtɾɐ]. Speakers of these dialects tend to pronounce:

• /ç/ /ʝ/ as [h] [j]
• /p/ /t/ /k/ as [pʰ] [tʰ] [kʰ]
• /p/ /t/ /k/ as [p˭] [t˭] [k˭] word-internally
• /Vɹ/ /Vːɹ/ as [Vʴ] [Vʴːɹ]
• /ʏ/ /y/ /yː/ as [ɨ] [ʉ] [ʉː]
• /u/ as [ɯ] (though not that common)
• stressed /e/ /ø/ /o/ as [ɛ] [œ] [ɔ]
• /ɑ/ /ɑː/ as [ɒ] [ɒː]
• /æ/ /æː/ as [ä] [äː]

Central Dialects are considered posh by northerners and westerners, but not by southerners.
3- Western Dialects
Spoken in in-world Ettúr /ɛtˈtuːɻ/ [ətˈtuːɽ]. Speakers of these dialects tend to pronounce:

• /ç/ /ʝ/ as [x] [ɣ]
• /p/ /t/ /k/ as [p˭] [t˭] [k˭]
• /p/ /t/ /k/ as [b] [d] [g] word-internally
• /b/ /d/ as [β̞] [ð̞] word-internally, instead of /v/ /z/
• /ɹ~ɻ/ as [ɾ~ɽ]
• stressed /e/ /ø/ /o/ as [ɛ] [œ] [ɔ]
• unstressed /e/ /ø/ /o/ as [ə] [œ] [ə]
• /eː/ /øː/ /oː/ as [ɛː] [œː] [ɔː]

4- Northern Dialects
Spoken in in-world Ämma̋n /ɐmˈmæːn/ [(ʕ)ɐmˈmæːn]. Speakers of these dialects tend to pronounce:

• /ç/ /ʝ/ as [h] [j]
• /ɫ/ as [l]
• /p/ /t/ /k/ as [p˭] [t˭] [k˭]
• /p/ /t/ /k/ as [b] [d] [g] word-internally
• /b/ /d/ as [b] [d] word-internally, instead of /v/ /z/
• /ɹ~ɻ/ as [ɾ~ɽ]
• /Vɹ/ as [Vː], or [Vɾ] in rhotic accents
• /Vːɹ/ as [Vːː] or [Vː], or [Vːɾ] in rhotic accents
• /ʏ/ /y/ /yː/ as [ɨ] [ɨ] [ɨː]
• /ø/ /øː/ as [ə] [əː] or [ɵ] [ɵː]
• /ɑ/ /ɑː/ as [ä] [äː]

==LEXICAL DOUBLETS==
The differing analyses of the Old English sequences /xe͜o xæ͜ɑ/ & /je͜o jæ͜ɑ/ when the change from /e͜o æ͜ɑ/ to /iɔ̯ iɐ̯/ was taking place led to:

• In the south, /i/ was elided into the palatal /ç/ /ʝ/, yielding Modern Southern [χɑ xæ] [ʁɑ ɣæ]
• In the (at the time) North, /i/ was fully pronounced, yielding Modern Central [heː] [jeː]

For example, Old English heofon & geofon evolved into:

• [ˈχɑvɱ̩] & [ˈʁɑvɱ̩] in Southern dialects. Used natively in the south and the west and were adopted as the standard forms /ˈxɑvɐn/ & /ˈɣɑvɐn/
• [ˈheːvɐn] & [ˈjeːvɐn] in the Central dialects. Used natively in the center and north and considered nonstandard.

=ORTHOGRAPHY=

Gýsene uses the Arabic script natively alongside a romanization
==SCRIPT BACKGROUND==
Since Gýsen use of the Nabataean & then Arabic script preceded the Persians by centuries, the Gýsen Arabic script differs quite a bit from the Indo-Persian system:

1. Rasm: Gýsens writing in Nabataean (& carrying over to Arabic) tended to follow Aramaic & Hebrew convention for representing consonants, while the Persian convention was derived from the most similar sounding preexisting Arabic consonants, leading to drastic differences in pointing convention (i‘jām). As Islam spread, the 2 conventions spread in their respective halves of the Muslim World: The Indo-Persian-Derived Eastern convention, and the Gýsen-Derived Western convention:

(Loose) Consonant ↓	Western ↓	Eastern ↓
//v//	⟪پ⟫	⟪و⟫ ǀ ⟪ڤ⟫
//tʃ//	⟪ڝ⟫	⟪چ⟫
//p//	⟪ڢ⟫	⟪پ⟫
//f//	⟪ڧ⟫	⟪ف⟫

1. Vowel Notation: The western convention has a definitive way of expressing vowels when diacritics are fully written, while in the eastern convention diacritics often serve dual-duty due to limitations of Arabic short vowel diacritics.

==Script keys==

Romanization ↓	Arabic ↓	Standard Phoneme ↓
ä ǀ a	◌َ	/æ/ (stressed) ǀ /ɐ/ (unstressed)
e	◌ِ	/e/ (stressed) ǀ /ɛ/ (unstressed)
o	◌ُ	/o/ (stressed) ǀ /ɔ/ (unstressed)
a̋ ǀ ◌́	◌ٓ	/æː/ (standalone) ǀ /◌ː/ (coupled with other vowels)
a	ا	/ɑ/ (stressed) ǀ /ɐ/ (unstressed)
b	ب	/b/ ǀ /v/ (intervocalically)
g	ځ	/ɣ/ ǀ /ʝ/
d	د	/d/ ǀ /z/ (intervocalically)
h	ھ	/ç/
w ǀ u	و	/w/ (glide) ǀ /u/ (vocalic)
z	ز	/z/
ch	خ	/x/
t	¹ط	/t/
y ǀ i	ي	/j/ (glide) ǀ /i/ (vocalic)
k	ک	/k/ ǀ /g/ (intervocalically)
l	ل	/ɫ/
m	م	/m/
n	ن	/n/
tj	ڝ	/t͡ʃ/
-	¹ع	/Ø/ ǀ /◌ː/ (post-vocalically)
p	ڢ	/p/ ǀ /b/ (intervocalically)
s	¹ص	/s/
k	¹ق	/k/
r	ر	/ɾ/ ǀ /r/ (geminated) ǀ /ɹ/ (post-vocalically)
s	س	/s/ ǀ /z/ (intervocalically)
t	ت	/t/ ǀ /d/ (intervocalically)
y	ې	/y/ (stressed) ǀ /ʏ/ (unstressed)
f	ڧ	/f/ ǀ /v/ (intervocalically)
ö	ۊ	/ø/ (stressed) ǀ /œ/ (unstressed)
-	ء ǀ ئـ	initial vowel holder
v	پ	/v/
th	ث	/θ/ ǀ /ð/ (intervocalically)
tj	¹چ	/t͡ʃ/
dj	¹ج	/d͡ʒ/
dh	ذ	/ð/
j	¹ژ	/ʒ/
sj	ش	/ʃ/
dh	¹ض	/ð/
dh	¹ظ	/ð/
g	¹غ	/ɣ/ ǀ /ʝ/
v	¹ڤ	/v/
a ǀ ä	²ـى	/æ/ (stressed) ǀ /ɐ/ (unstressed)
e	²ـہ	/e/ (stressed) ǀ /ɛ/ (unstressed)
'l-	لٔـ	/‿(ə)ɫ-/
th'-	ثِـ	/θɛ-/

1. nonnative
2. only occur word-finally

=GRAMMAR=

Gwýsen grammar is extremely divergent from the Germanic norm, having been brought about by extremely harsh standardization efforts by the ruling class while backed by academia & scholars. It's heavily influenced by Arabic — being the encompassing liturgical, academic, and aristocratic language during the Middle to Early Modern Gwýsen periods.
==PRONOUNS==
^\this entire segment will use the romanization only]) The Pronouns themselves have remained relatively true to their Germanic origins, apart from the entire set of Arabic 3rd person pronouns & the genitive enclitics. Gwýsene still retains the Old English dual forms, but they're only used in formal writing:

1st Person	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	ih /iç/	wi /wi/	wi /wi/
Accusative	mih /miç/	án /ɑːn/	ós /oːs/
Standalone Genitive	min /min/	ág /ɑːɣ/	ór /oːɹ/
Enclitic Genitive	-min /-mɪn/	-ag /-ɐɣ/	-or /-ɔɹ/

2nd Person	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	thách /θɑːx/	gi /ʝi/	gi /ʝi/
Accusative	thih /θiç/	in /in/	iw /iw/
Standalone Genitive	thin /θin/	ig /iʝ/	iwar /ˈiwɐɹ/
Enclitic Genitive	-thin /-θɪn/	-ig /-ɪʝ/	-iwar /-ɪwɐɹ/

3rd Person Masculine	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	chá /xɑː/	chama̋ /xɐˈmæː/	chám /xɑːm/
Accusative	hin /çin/	chama̋ /xɐˈmæː/	chám /xɑːm/
Standalone Genitive	his /çis/	chama̋ /xɐˈmæː/	chám /xɑːm/
Enclitic Genitive	-his /-çɪs/	-chama /-xɐmɐ/	-cham /-xɐm/

3rd Person Feminine	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	hi /çi/	chana̋ /xɐˈnæː/	chán /xɑːn/
Accusative	hi /çi/	chana̋ /xɐˈnæː/	chán /xɑːn/
Standalone Genitive	hir /çiɹ/	chana̋ /xɐˈnæː/	chán /xɑːn/
Enclitic Genitive	-hir /-çɪɹ/	-chana /-xɐnɐ/	-chan /-xɐn/

==NOUNS==
Middle Gwýsene inherited the Old English nominal declension, but due to merging & reduction of (final) unstressed vowels, all endlings were dropped except for the accusative & dative plurals which were later generalized. Middle Gwýsene also dropped the neuter gender, merging it with the masculine & feminine genders based on endings

Regular Noun Declension	Singular	Plural
Masculine	-	-an /-ɐn/
Feminine	-	-as /-ɐs/

This has been standardized to all nouns, with some ablaut irregulars:

"Man" (man) ǀ "Bách" (book)	Singular	Plural
Masculine	man /mɑn/	menan /ˈmenɐn/
Feminine	bách /bɑːx/	bitjas /ˈbit͡ʃɐs/

...and some nouns retain colloquial plural forms more reminiscent of their Old English counterparts:

"Tjylz" (child) ǀ "Chänz" (hand)	Singular	(Standard) Plural	(Common) Plural
Masculine	tjylz /t͡ʃyɫz/	tjylzan /ˈt͡ʃyɫzɐn/	tjylro /ˈt͡ʃyɫɾɔ/
Feminine	chänz /xænz/	chänzas /ˈxænzɐs/	chänza /ˈxænzɐ/

===Possession===
Gwýsene has two distinct methods of indicating possession dur to the dropping of the genitive case:
1. A loaned version of the Arabic construct state (present in the standard language, urban areas, and most of the Northern and Western dialects). the Arabic definite article (-الـ) was loaned with its use in the construct state into Late Early Modern Gwýsene as a separate "letter form" [-لٔـ] and prescribed by Grammarians ever since as a "genitive" maker. This method also assumes definiteness of the noun it's prefixed to; it must be prefixed to eneg ("any") for indefinite nouns.
Bách 'lgörel /bɑːχ‿ɫ̩ˈʝøɹɛɫ/ ("the boy's book")

bách 'l - görel book ɢᴇɴ.ᴅғ - boy 

2. Use of a prefixed fär (equivalent to English "of", cognate with English "for") (present in rural areas and is generally viewed as a rural or "Bedouin" feature). This method does not assume definiteness, and a definite article is required.
Bách färth'görel /bɑːχ ˌfɐɹðəˈʝøɹɛɫ/ ("the boy's book")

Bách fär - th' - görel book of - ᴅғ - boy 

==ADJECTIVES==
Much like Nouns, adjectives decline for number and gender:

Regular Adjective Declension	Singular	Plural
Masculine	-	-an /-ɐn/
Feminine	-e /-ɛ/*	-as /-ɐs/

\due to its similarity with the common adjectival suffix* -e, adjectives derived that way would not decline for gender in the singular
==VERBS==
Gwýsen verbs are the most mangled, both by Arabization and regular phonological development. Gwýsen word order is VSO. Due to pronouns coming after the verb, they merged with the preexisting endings and formed unique endings that were later generalized to standard verb declension (rendering Gwýsene a pro-drop language)

Present Verb Conjugation	---
Infinitive	-en /-ɛn/
Present Participle	-enz /-ɛnz/
Past Participle	ge- -en /ʝɛ- -ɛn/
Singular Imperative	-
Plural Imperative	-on /-ɔn/
1ˢᵗ singular	-i /-ɪ/
1ˢᵗ plural	-swe /-swɛ/
2ⁿᵈ singular	-tha /-θɐ/
2ⁿᵈ plural	-gge /-ʝʝɛ/
3ʳᵈ singular masculine	-scha /-sxɐ/
3ʳᵈ dual masculine	-schama /-sxɐmɐ/
3ʳᵈ plural masculine	-scham /-sxɐm/
3ʳᵈ singular feminine	-sche /-sxɛ/
3ʳᵈ dual feminine	-schana /-sxɐnɐ/
3ʳᵈ plural feminine	-schan /-sxɐn/

the subjunctive is formed with a prefixed les- (if the verb is consonant-initial) or let- (if the verb is vowel-initial)
As a consequence to the fusional suffixes, the preterite suffixes completely merged with the present ones, so weak verbs need an auxiliary to indicate simple past, which segways us to-
===Auxiliary Verbs===
Most auxiliaries have 2 conjugations: an auxiliary conjugation & a standalone conjugation:

Sőn ("to be") Conjugations	Auxiliary	Standalone
Singular Imperative	ső /søː/	ső /søː/
Plural Imperative	sőn /søːn/	sőn /søːn/
Singular Subjunctive	ső /søː/	les-... /ɫɛs-../
Plural Subjunctive	sőn /søːn/	les-... /ɫɛs-.../
1ˢᵗ singular	ém /eːm/	émi /ˈeːmɪ/
1ˢᵗ plural	synz /synz/	synzwe /ˈsynzwɛ/
2ⁿᵈ singular	érs /eːɹs/	értha /ˈérðɐ/
2ⁿᵈ plural	synz /synz/	syngge /ˈsynʝ(ʝ)ɛ/
3ʳᵈ singular masculine	ys /ys/	ysscha /ˈyssxɐ/
3ʳᵈ dual masculine	synz /synz/	synzchama /ˈsynzxɐmɐ/
3ʳᵈ plural masculine	synz /synz/	synzcham /ˈsynzxɐm/
3ʳᵈ singular feminine	ys /ys/	yssche /ˈyssxɛ/
3ʳᵈ dual feminine	synz /synz/	synzchana /ˈsynzxɐnɐ/
3ʳᵈ plural feminine	synz /synz/	synzchan /ˈsynzxɐn/

There are 4 tense-related auxiliaries: Wesan (past auxiliary, "was"), Sőn (participle auxiliary, "be"), Bín (participle auxiliary, "be"), and Víden (future auxiliary, "will"):

Auxiliary Declensions	Wesan ↓	Sőn ↓	Bín ↓	Víden ↓
1ˢᵗ singular	wes /wes/	ém /eːm/	bí /biː/	va̋ /væː/
2ⁿᵈ singular	wir /wiɹ/	érs /eːɹs/	bys /bys/	vés /veːs/
3ʳᵈ singular	wes /wes/	ys /ys/	byth /byθ/	véth /veːθ/
dual/plural	wiran /ˈwiɹɐn/	synz /synz/	bíth /biːθ/	va̋th /væːθ/
Singular Imperative	wes /wes/	ső /søː/	bí /biː/	víz /viːz/
Plural Imperative	weson /ˈwezɔn/	sőn /søːn/	bín /biːn/	vídon /ˈviːzɔn/
Singular Subjunctive	wir /wiɹ/	ső /søː/	bí /biː/	víz /viːz/
Plural Subjunctive	wiren /ˈwiɹɛn/	sőn /søːn/	bín /biːn/	víden /ˈviːzɛn/

===Stong Verbs===
Most of the strong classes remain in Gwýsene, albeit with completely unorthodox ablaut patterns. They've been re-sorted based on patterns that I've Grammarians have found. Strong verbs also never need the past auxiliary.

Type (Gwýsene)	Corr. Type in Old English	Present stem vowel	Past singular stem vowel	Past plural stem vowel	Past participle stem vowel
I	VII.c	é /eː/	í /iː/	í /iː/	é /eː/
II	IV	e /e/	e /e/	i /i/	a /ɑ/
III.a	I	ý /yː/	a̋ /æː/	y /y/	y /y/
III.b	III.a	y /y/	ä /æ/	o /o/	o /o/
IV.a	II.a	í /iː/	í /iː/	o /o/	a /ɑ/
IV.b	II.b	a/á /ɑ(ː)/	í /iː/	o /o/	a /ɑ/
IV.c	III.b	é /eː/	é /eː/	o /o/	a /ɑ/
V.a	VI	ä /æ/	á /ɑː/	á /ɑː/	ä /æ/
V.b	VII.a	a̋ /æː/	i /i/	i /i/	a̋ /æː/
V.c	VII.e	á /ɑː/	í /iː/	í /iː/	á /ɑː/

=TRANSLATIONS=

==NUMBERS==

Number	Cardinal	Ordinal	Adverbial	Multiplier
1	A̋n /æːn/	Föress /ˈføɹɛss/	Mer /meɹ/	A̋nfélz /ˈæːnˌveːɫz/
2	Twin /twin/	Áther /ˈɑːðɛɹ/	Merdén /mɛɹˈdeːn/	Twýfélz /ˈtyːˌveːɫz/
3	Thrý /θɾyː/	Thryzz /ˈθɾyzz/	Thrémra̋s /ˌθɾeːˈmɾæːs/	Thryfélz /ˈθɾyˌveːɫz/
4	Fíwar /ˈfiːwɐɹ/	Fíradh /ˈfiːɹɐð/	Fírmra̋s /ˌfiːɹˈmɾæːs/	Fíwarfélz /ˈfiːwɐɹˌveːɫz/
5	Fýf /fyːf/	Fýfedh /ˈfyːvɛð/	Fýfmra̋s /ˌfyːvˈmɾæːs/	Fýffélz /ˈfyːfˌfeːɫz/
6	Sysj /syʃ/	Sysjedh /ˈsyʃɛð/	Sysmra̋s /ˌsysˈmɾæːs/	Sysjfélz /ˈsyʃˌfeːɫz/
7	Sévan /ˈseːvɐn/	Sévadh /ˈseːvɐð/	Sévmra̋s /ˌseːvˈmɾæːs/	Sévanfélz /ˈseːvɐnˌveːɫz/
8	Éht /eːçt/	Éhtadh /ˈeːçtɐð/	Éhmra̋s /ˈeːçˈmɾæːs/	Éhtafélz /ˈeːçtɐˌveːɫz/
9	Nygan /ˈnyʝɐn/	Nygadh /ˈnyʝɐð/	Nygamra̋s /ˌnyʝɐˈmɾæːs/	Nyganfélz /ˈnyʝɐnˌveːɫz/
10	Tőn /tøːn/	Tődh /ˈtøːð/	Tőmra̋s /ˌtøːˈmɾæːs/	Tőnfélz /ˈtøːnˌveːɫz/

==THE COLD WINTER IS NEAR==
‎‫بېث نيٓھ ثِوېٓنتِر ڝِٓلز، پِٓث ڝۊٓمسخى ستارم سنِوى. ڝۊم وِثنَن خُٓمسمين وِٓرم، برآثَرمين. سَلٓم! ڝۊم ھېذ، سېځّ ءَنز شّيٓڧ، ڧرِس ءَنز درېھّ. بېثِّس خُطَّمين. ھِپّسوى وِتِر، ءَنز زۊٓثِن، ءَنز مِٓلخ، بېثِّس ڧِرش ءُٓسڧرى ثِکآ. ءوٓ، ءَنز براث وِٓرم!‬
Byth ních thʼwýnter tjélz, véth tjőmscha starm snewe. Tjöm withnän¹ chósmin wérm, bráthärmin². Säläm³! Tjöm hydh, sygg ænz ssjíf⁴ ⁶, fres⁵ änz dryhh⁶. Bytthes⁷ chottämin⁸. Hevvswe weter, änz zőthen⁹, änz mélch, býtthes fersj ósfrä¹⁰ thʼká. Ó, änz brath!
be.3.ꜱɢ.ᴘʀᴇꜱ near ᴅꜰ-winter cold , ꜰᴜᴛ.3.ꜱɢ come-3.ꜱɢ.ᴍᴀꜱᴄ storm snowy . come.ɪᴍᴘ.ꜱɢ in house-1.ꜱɢ.ɢᴇɴ.ᴄʟ warm , brother-1.ꜱɢ.ɢᴇɴ.ᴄʟ . Welcome ! come.ɪᴍᴘ.ꜱɢ hither , sing.ɪᴍᴘ.ꜱɢ and dance.ɪᴍᴘ.ꜱɢ , eat.ɪᴍᴘ.ꜱɢ and drink.ɪᴍᴘ.ꜱɢ . be.3.ꜱɢ.ᴘʀᴇꜱ-that plan-1.ꜱɢ.ɢᴇɴ.ᴄʟ . have-1.ᴘʟ water , and beer , and milk, be.3.ꜱɢ.ᴘʀᴇꜱ-that fresh from ᴅꜰ-cow . Oh , and soup !

/byθ niːç θə‿ˈyːnzɛɹ tʃeːɫz veːθ ˈtʃøːmsxɐ stɑɻm ˈsnewɛ/
/tʃøm wɪðˈnæn ˈxoːsˌmɪn weːɹm ˈbɾɑːðɐɹˌmɪn/
/sɐˈɫæm tʃøm çyð syʝʝ‿ɐnz ʃʃiːf fres‿ɐnz dɾyçç/
/ˈbyθθɛs ˈxottɐˌmɪn/
/ˈçevvswɛ ˈwedɛɹ ɐnz ˈzøːðɛn ɐnz meɫχ ˈbyθθɛs feɹʃ ˈoːsfrɐ θəˈkɑː/
/oː ɐnz bɾɑθ/

1. the words for “in” and “on” merged to än, which was kept for “on”.‬
2. Gwýsens tend to use “brother” as an informal form of address‬.
3. Säläm is only used by Muslim Gwysens. Christian Gwysens prefer Pastos /pɐsˈtos/ (from Ancient Greek ‬ἀσπαστός).
4. comes from Old English hlēapan.
5. comes from old English fretan.
6. Drykken & Ssjípan are within a class of verbs that have a differing imperative stems than the usual inflected stems due to sound changes. In this case the usual stems are Drykk- & Ssjíp-, while the imperatives are Dryhh & Ssjíf. In the central and Low Northern dialects this particular /k/ => /ç/ is not present, and the imperative stem is also Drykk.
7. contracted from of Byth thäs (“that is”)‬.
8. from Arabic خُطَّة.
9. from Latin zȳthum.
10. contraction of old English ūt fra (“out of”).

I can think of some plural forms of Greek nouns that end in "-ai," like "drachmai", and some singular nouns borrowed from non Indo-European languages, like "samurai." But are there any Indo-European languages that have some singular nouns ending in "-ai" that aren't borrowed from non Indo-European languages?

This is my first time posting here so let me know if I'm doing anything wrong, should give more info, etc.
I've been working on my first (so-far unnamed) conlang for the past two years for a worldbuilding project. I recently had the idea that it would be good to create a family of languages around the one I currently have. Since my Conlang is still in the relatively early stages (I have most of a phonology and a handful of simple words, very little actual grammar besides for planned features) and I'd rather not start completely from scratch (it did take a two years to get to this point after all), I figured it'd be easiest to "reverse-evolve" what I already have to get a proto-lang, and then normal-evolve that to get multiple conlangs that I could actually use. One of my main goals is naturalism, so I would greatly appreciate feedback on how to improve what I have, but my main question is as to how I might go about constructing a Proto-lang based on my current work, so that I can flesh both of them out to point where they're actually usable.
The phonology (or what there is of it) of my conlang is mostly based on Old Norse and Icelandic, and is as follows:

Phonology

Phonemes

Consonants

	Labial	Dental	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	m		(n̥) n		(ŋ)
Stop	p b		t d		k (ɡ)
Fricative	f v	θ ð	s (z)	(ç)	x ɣ	(h)
Approximant	(ʍ) w			j	(ʍ) w
Rhotic			(ɾ̥) ɾ
Lateral			(ɬ) l		(ɫ)

Symbols in parentheses represent allophones
I'm a little on the fence about including /v/

Vowels

Monophthongs

	Front Unrounded	Front Rounded	Central	Back
High	i iː	y yː		u uː
Mid	e eː	ø øː		o oː
Low	æ æː		a aː	ɒ ɒː

I'm also on the fence about including /ɒ ɒː/

Diphthongs

/ai̯ au̯ ei̯ oi̯ øi̯/ (idk how you're supposed to organize diphthongs in a table)

Gemination

Some consonants can be geminated in syllables codas (especially word-final) or cross syllabically. The consonants that can geminate in coda positions are /m n p t k f s ɣ ɾ l/. All of these, as well as /b d θ ð/, can also be geminated over a syllable boundary, i.e. when one syllable ends with the same consonant the next syllable begins with.

Phonotactics

General Syllable Structure: (C/sP̥)(v)V(C)⁴
P̥ represents a voiceless plosive /p t k/
R represents a sonorant /m n w j ɾ l/
Syllabic consonants can only occur word-finally, and only /n ɾ l/ can be syllabic

Allophony

I've come up with a handful of rules for allophonic variation. Here are are a few of them:
x → h / #_
ɣ → ɡ / {#,n}_
n → ŋ / _{k,ɣ}
x{n,w,j,ɾ,l} → {n̥,ʍ,ç,ɾ̥,ɬ}
ɾɾ → rː

Grammar

Again, I don't really have much in the way of grammar, but these are some of the features I hope to include in this conlang:

• 5 Noun cases: Nominative, Accusative, Dative, Instrumental, Genitive
• Clusivity in 1st-person plural pronouns, possibly eveolved from a dual-plural distinction (if that's realistic)
• Masculine, feminine, and neuter genders (only present in 3rd-person singular pronouns)
• Proximal-medial-distal distinction in demonstratives
• Vowel gradation in verb conjugations, most likely to mark tense-aspect-mood

Once again, I am mainly wondering how to "reverse" the state of my Conlang to get a Proto-language that I could flesh out more before evolving it into a more complete Conlang. Any advice or feedback on anything I have shared or mentioned would be immensely appreciated.

Westphalian
The westphalian language (not to be confused with the real world westphalian dialect group) is an ingvaeonic language spoken in, well, westphalia. It developed closely with the anglo-frisian languages, though is not one in itself, merely sharing some commonalities with the branch.
Phonology: (i tried to display this in a table, but reddit sucks, so take a list instead)
Consonants
m,n,ŋ,
p,b,t,d,k,g,
f,v,s,z,ʃ,x,h,
ɹ,j,[ɰ],
ɾ,l
Vowels
ɪ,ʏ,ʊ,
ø:,
ə,
ɛ(:),œ,ɔ(:),
a(:)
There are also 4 diphthongs! Those being /eɪ̯/, /aɪ̯/, /œʏ̯/, and /oʊ̯/.
Grammar:
The grammar is quite simplified from its Proto-West-Germanic origins, with nouns having 4 total stems they could be. Those being (using PG derivative terminology) the a-stem, ō-stem, n-stem, and r-stem. The r-stem, though, only contains seven kinship terms. Whilst the a-stem and ō-stem are direct descendants from PG, the n-stem is more of a combination stem of multiple stems ending in *-n. Nouns in westphalian are divided into two genders, common and neuter.
In terms of cases, nouns (and adjectives) can only inflect for two, those being the nominative and objective. The genitive is maintained though, in pronouns. Apart from that, nouns (again, and adjectives), also inflect for the numbers singular and plural.
I will move on to adjectives first, as it is an easier bridge from nouns. Adjectives only have one inflection pattern, instead of the multiple stems nouns could have, and this inflects for all the same things as nouns, but also strong/weak inflection, the predicative, and positive/comparative/superlative. Standard stuff.
Verbs also only have one weak inflection pattern left, though there are still some strong verbs that have different inflection patterns, the vast majority are weak verbs, which inflect using the same pattern. This pattern inflects for a few things, let's begin with person. It inflects for 1PS, 2PS, 3PS, and a general plural form. In terms of tenses, there is the present and past tense (more can be expressed using auxiliaries, this is just what they inflect for). Moods consist of the indicative, subjunctive, and imperative. Apart from that, they also have an infinitive, and a present and past participle.
Examples:
"Welcome to the westphalian language!"
Wilkowm tå de westfuylske språk!
/ˈvɪl.koʊ̯m tɔː də ˈvɛst.fœʏ̯ɰ.ʃə sprɔːk/
"The cold winter is near, a snowstorm will come. Come in my warm house, my friend. Welcome! Come here, sing and dance, eat and drink. That is my plan. We have water, beer, and milk fresh from the cow. Oh, and warm soup!"
De selte winter is neh, een sneastuyrm skoll kuymen. Kuym in mijn werm huys, mijn frent. Wilkowm! Kuym heer, sing en dans, eed en drink. Dat is mijn plan. Wij hebben wader, ber, en meelk frisk von de koo. Oh, en werme suyp!
/də zɛɰtə ˈvɪn.təɹ ɪs neɪ̯ - eɪ̯n ˈsnɛː.stœʏ̯ɹm ʃɔl ˈkœʏ̯.mən - kœʏ̯m ɪn maɪ̯n vɛɹm hœʏ̯s - maɪ̯n fɾɛnt - vɪɰkoʊ̯m - kœʏ̯m heɪ̯ɹ - zɪŋ ɛn dans - eɪ̯d ɛn dɾɪŋk - dat ɪs maɪ̯n plan - vaɪ̯ ˈhɛ.bən ˈvaː.ɾəɹ - bɛɹ - ɛn meɪ̯ɰk fɾɪʃ vɔn də kɔː - oʊ̯ - ɛn vɛɹmə sœʏ̯p/

I want to take a moment to list out some of my most challenging problems with Protestantism according to what Scripture says, in no particular order. It is not a comprehensive list of all of the problems that I have with it, but having these answered would go a long way to me taking Protestantism seriously from a theological viewpoint.
We should rely on our own personal interpretation of Scripture
And we have the prophetic word made more sure. You will do well to pay attention to this as to a lamp shining in a dark place, until the day dawns and the morning star rises in your hearts. ²⁰ First of all you must understand this, that no prophecy of scripture is a matter of one’s own interpretation, ²¹ because no prophecy ever came by the impulse of man, but men moved by the Holy Spirit spoke from God.
Here, Peter is saying PAY ATTENTION TO THE CHURCH!!! Listen to what the apostles are teaching and allow that to form your reading of Scripture. If you read the rest of this chapter, He says that "we" (the apostles) have had given to them, "all things that pertain to life and godliness" through knowledge of Jesus Christ. When we read Scripture, we should not read it solely with our own understanding, but allow ourselves to be taught by the apostles (or those appointed by them as successors).
When it comes to Sola Scriptura, I do not see how it is not relying on one's own personal interpretation. How do I know that I am understanding Scripture correctly? How do I know that I do not have an interpretation that is horribly off base? I have never really gotten an answer to this from Protestants.
If I am debating Scripture, according to Protestants, I am debating the sole highest authority. So if I test my interpretation against something else, I am testing against a lesser authority and thus it can still be challenged and I have not sufficiently solved the problem.
We only need to declare Jesus as Lord to get to Heaven
“Not every one who says to me, ‘Lord, Lord,’ shall enter the kingdom of heaven, but he who does the will of my Father who is in heaven.
Here Jesus flatly says professing that Jesus is Lord is not enough to get you into Heaven, but doing the will of the Father. Yes, we are saved by faith through grace. If you get baptized and are shot dead the moment you walk out of the church, you will go to Heaven having done nothing except making that "leap of faith." If you are in a car crash and have a minute to live and all you can do is place your trust in Jesus, yes, you will be saved. But for 99.99999% of people, this is not the case. We have our entire lives to live after baptism. So the question is "Do we live according to what we profess with our mouth?"
If I say "I am an Orioles fan." but only ever go to/watch Yankees games and only ever root for the Yankees, would you say that I am actually an Orioles fan? Do I not call into question that statement that I made by my actions? What if I grow up as an Orioles fan, regularly attending games and watching them daily. But then later, my favorite player gets traded to the Yankees and I convert to a Yankees fan. Was I never an Orioles fan to begin with? No. That would be silly. I was an Orioles fan, but then became a Yankees fan.
Likewise, if I say "I am a Christian and believe that Jesus rose from the dead." But I never attend Church, I am not loving others, I am worshipping other gods, etc. Am I really a Christian? Maybe I was at one point, but I certainly am not now based on what I have done.
As such, yes, it is true that works do not save us, but if we act contrary to what we believe, we cannot have assurance of our salvation. Hopefully God still finds a way to bring us to Heaven. I would rather someone spend 1000 years after death having their soul purified knowing that they will go to Heaven then know for a fact that they are in Hell. Even so, we must recognize that Hell is real, it is a real possibility.
Baptism does not save
He who believes and is baptized will be saved; but he who does not believe will be condemned.
Baptism, which corresponds to this, now saves you, not as a removal of dirt from the body but as an appeal to God for a clear conscience, through the resurrection of Jesus Christ, ²² who has gone into heaven and is at the right hand of God, with angels, authorities, and powers subject to him.
I have ZERO idea where some Protestants get this idea from. The idea that Baptism is not salvific is not at all Scriptural. This really ties into the "Sola Fide" bit of this post.
The Eucharist is merely symbolic
I am the bread of life. ⁴⁹ Your fathers ate the manna in the wilderness, and they died. ⁵⁰ This is the bread which comes down from heaven, that a man may eat of it and not die. ⁵¹ I am the living bread^\)^c\) which came down from heaven; if any one eats of this bread, he will live for ever; and the bread which I shall give for the life of the world is my flesh.”
⁵² The Jews then disputed among themselves, saying, “How can this man give us his flesh to eat?”^\)^d\) ⁵³ So Jesus said to them, “Truly, truly, I say to you, unless you eat the flesh of the Son of man and drink his blood, you have no life in you; ⁵⁴ he who eats my flesh and drinks my blood has eternal life, and I will raise him up at the last day. ⁵⁵ For my flesh is food indeed, and my blood is drink indeed. ⁵⁶ He who eats my flesh and drinks my blood abides in me, and I in him. ⁵⁷ As the living Father sent me, and I live because of the Father, so he who eats me will live because of me. ⁵⁸ This is the bread which came down from heaven, not such as the fathers ate and died; he who eats this bread will live for ever.” ⁵⁹ This he said in the synagogue, as he taught at Caper′na-um.
Jesus flat out says "This bread that I am talking about here is my flesh." So the disciples challenge Him saying "You mean this figuratively right?... RIGHT?
So Jesus responds repeating himself over and over in verses 53 through 58. How many times does Jesus need to say something for you to believe it? You will latch on to a singular verse that teaches something you agree with (or seems to) for dear life at the exclusion of literally any other verse on the topic, but something else is taught multiple times and you don't believe it? I am confused about how Protestants read the Bible. It does not seem to be in any kind of coherent exegesis.
You are allowed to get divorced and remarried... at all.
“Every one who divorces his wife and marries another commits adultery, and he who marries a woman divorced from her husband commits adultery.
But Jesus said to them, “For your hardness of heart he wrote you this commandment. ⁶ But from the beginning of creation, ‘God made them male and female.’ ⁷ ‘For this reason a man shall leave his father and mother and be joined to his wife,^\)^a\) ⁸ and the two shall become one.’^\)^b\) So they are no longer two but one.^\)^c\) ⁹ What therefore God has joined together, let not man put asunder.”
He said to them, “For your hardness of heart Moses allowed you to divorce your wives, but from the beginning it was not so. ⁹ And I say to you: whoever divorces his wife, except for unchastity,^\)^c\) and marries another, commits adultery; and he who marries a divorced woman, commits adultery.”
A wife is bound to her husband as long as he lives. If the husband dies, she is free to be married to whom she wishes, only in the Lord.
Marriage is "until death do us part." The teachings on divorce from the Gospels is trying to set a trap for Jesus to see which rabbinical school he agrees with. Jesus comes out and says. "Neither." He says "Yeah. Moses allowed for divorce. But this is not how it was from the beginning. What about that "except for unchastity" phrase in Matthew (and only Matthew)?
There Matthew is talking about unions that God did not join together. He is talking about invalid marriages that his primarily Jewish readers would have been thinking about. The gentile converts to Christianity would not have thought about these weird situations, so this is excluded from the other gospels.
You can get re-baptized
There is one body and one Spirit—just as you were called to the one hope that belongs to your call— one Lord, one faith, one baptism,
Some that want to say that you can get rebaptized jump to Acts 19. Reading this passage, it would seem that what is going on here is that the Baptism by John was not in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Paul is essentially saying that the "baptism" that they had received was not valid. He does not say that he "baptized them again into Christ." Rather it says that Paul "baptized them in the name Jesus Christ." As in they were not baptized into Christ, so Paul baptized them "for real this time."
You can only be cleansed from Original Sin once. After that, you can confess your sins and have them forgiven. Baptism is what makes into a child of God. That can only happen once. To do otherwise is a grave sin because you are saying that God was not powerful enough to save you the first time. Again, if a baptism is deemed to be invalid, this is a different story. This is why Paul asks "Into what were you baptized?"
The Church is simply the collection of believers
“If your brother sins against you, go and tell him his fault, between you and him alone. If he listens to you, you have gained your brother. ¹⁶ But if he does not listen, take one or two others along with you, that every word may be confirmed by the evidence of two or three witnesses. ¹⁷ If he refuses to listen to them, tell it to the church; and if he refuses to listen even to the church, let him be to you as a Gentile and a tax collector. ¹⁸ Truly, I say to you, whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven.
Here it is clear that the "Church" is something more than a collection of believers. Jesus teaches here that first, you deal with disagreement 1 on 1. If that does not work, you go and get other believers to help show that they are wrong. If that does not work, then take to the Church. If even that does not work, they are to be treated as an unbeliever (excommunicated).
Certainly, all believers are a part of the Church - which is the body of Christ. The Church is not a parish or a singular building. The Church is universal, but there is a clear structure to it. There are priests, bishops, elders, etc. There is real authority in that structure. This article goes over in Scripture and towards the bottom the Church Fathers what the Church is meant to look like: https://www.scripturecatholic.com/the-biblical-church/
Many Protestant ideas sound nice, but I do not want to believe something merely because it sounds nice. Dessert for dinner sounds nice but it is not good for my body. Likewise, we should not judge something on "does it sound nice." We should judge something on whether it is good for our souls.
I look at many Protestant theological views and note how they seem to not be based in Scripture or based on a misunderstanding of Scripture. I would love to see if Protestants can properly answer these. Simply quoting verses that seem to back you up is not enough here. You need to show that these other verses are not problematic.
I do not only want to trust in Jesus, I want to trust that I am following everything that he taught. Jesus commanded the apostles to teach all that He has commanded, not just the important stuff. If you get the main stuff right but other things wrong, you still got it wrong. If a teacher gave a 10 question quiz and said, "You got questions 1, 2, 5, and 7 right, but everything else wrong. It is ok though those questions were the most important." I still get a failing grade. So, if you want me to convert to Protestantism you need to show that you actually follow all of Scripture, because I want to strive to get a 100% on the "test" of salvation. After all Jesus told us to "Be perfect as Your Heavenly Father is perfect" Not "Be kind of perfect as Your Heavenly Father is perfect."

0th Dimension - Universe: - Contravism: The foundational principle representing inherent opposition within the cosmic order. - Singular: Any captivation of the Universe, transcending individual experiences or perspectives. - Mayora Singular: The self, embodying individual identity or principle within the cosmic hierarchy. - Menor Plural: The cosmos, representing the collective realm of existence or the broader cosmic order. - Warp: The completion of altruism, signifying an additional merit within the cosmos, achieving a state of wholeness or fulfillment.
1st Dimension - Being: - Activism: The principle of action and engagement with the cosmic order, contributing to the realization of individual identity and purpose. - Breathe: The fundamental act of existence, symbolizing the breath of life and vitality. - Bounce: The dynamic interplay between individual actions and their impact on the broader cosmic framework. - Merit: Any aspect of existence or manifestation within the cosmos contributing to overall harmony and balance.
2nd Dimension - Emotion: - Responsivism: The principle of emotional response and engagement with the cosmic order, shaping individual experiences and interactions. - Stance: The emotional posture or attitude towards the cosmic order, influencing perception and interaction. - Whum: The resonance of emotional energy within the cosmic framework, reflecting vibrancy and intensity of feeling. - Manifestation: Any aspect of existence arising from the interaction between Contravisms and emotional dynamics within the cosmic order.
3rd Dimension - Mind: - Objectivism: The principle of cognitive understanding and interpretation within the cosmic order, shaping perception and knowledge. - Stretch: The expansion of consciousness and awareness, encompassing the breadth and depth of cognitive exploration. - Dance: The dynamic interplay between mental constructs and their manifestation within the cosmic framework. - Identification of Being: The stages of realization contributing to the completion of altruism within the cosmic order.
4th Dimension - Electricity: - Inventivism: The principle of creative expression and innovation within the cosmic order, driving evolution and transformation. - Worship: The reverence and celebration of creative energy and expression, acknowledging the divine spark within all manifestations. - Whistle: The harmonious alignment of creative energies, generating resonance and synergy within the cosmic framework. - Cosmic Dynamics: The intricate relationships, interactions, and interdependencies governing the functioning and evolution of the cosmic order.

I was listening to a podcast that commentates on newspapers(British). And I got confused because sometimes it treats the name of a newspaper as singular sometimes plural.
For example, the podcaster would sometimes say “The Times leads with…”
Other times, they say:”Then the i have led with a big interview with…”

Alright. I last discussed Câynqasang here, where I covered noun case and quirky subject. Also, here's the first overview post. This time, I'm going to give an overview of verbs in the language. I'll touch on the major points, but there might be a good deal of detail that ends up being beyond the scope of this. I intend to cover the auxiliary verbs, other methods of tense marking, and, by nature of the basic tenses, person marking. Also, I've already discussed the verb classes in a previous post because they're linked to some functions of the case system, but I'll cover that briefly again here. Participles and other features derived from them, however, are mostly beyond the scope of this post, though some will appear in example sentences because both can appear in constructions involving auxiliary verbs.

Verb Classes

Câynqasang verbs belong to four classes, largely (though not exclusively!) determined by their meaning. As I detailed in my most recent post, they trigger a good deal of quirky subject, which I will briefly touch on again here. All may take subjects in the vocative case for imperative constructions, and I will briefly detail other options below.
Action verbs include most verbs in the language. These typically deal in concrete actions and in senses which don't fit in one of the other three categories. The subject of a sentence containing them may take case marking for reflexive constructions or volition marking. Examples:

• nyu [ŋo] "to have" (This is the alienable form. The inalienable "have", ê [eː], is a stative verb.)
• gno [ɣno] "to drink"
• sman [smɐn] "to dig"
• cûl [t͡ʃɪːl] "to bite"

Motion verbs typically deal with motion, though this operates in some broad senses, as we'll see. The subject of a sentence containing them takes prepositional cases to indicate the direction of the motion. Examples:

• lan [lɐn] "to sit"
• ngûyinytinyu [ˈŋɪːjiŋtiŋu] "to inject"
• hînû [ˈxɪːniː] "to fight"
• lâmvu [ˈlɐːmu] "to cross, traverse"

Stative verbs most often deal with states of being, though some irregularity can occur within this class as well. The subject of a sentence containing them takes case marking to indicate volition. Examples:

• gla [ɣla] "to sleep"
• kalîng [kaˈlɪːŋ] "to hydrate" (This has an additional sense as a noun, "waterfall")
• îny [ɪːŋ] "to pray" (one of the wilder examples)
• calom [t͡saˈlɔm] "to rain" (also the noun "rain"; yes, weather is often handled with stative verbs)

Perception verbs typically deal with the senses, though especially this class has some unexpected things and fun exceptions. The subject of a sentence containing them is actually unable to take the nominative case, mandating other marking to indicate reflexives or volition. Examples:

• tiptâ [tiptaː] "to learn"
• sunyu [suŋo] "to love" (considered an act of perception rather than a state! Many emotional states are handled this way)
• tkâranco [tkɐːrant͡su] "to sabotage" (one of the wilder ones, this one explained by semantic drift from "to deceive")
• mngôny [mŋɔːŋ] "to know"

Agreement and the Basic Tenses

Verbs mark for singular, paucal, and plural number and first, second, and third person. Here is a table of the basic endings:
https://preview.redd.it/ndrsdre6l40d1.png?width=800&format=png&auto=webp&s=0164ebde6d9c6657589ea6422de9ae1a512d6ce2
The basic past and future tenses are marked with suffixes -tûl- and -nqi- respectively, attaching before the person agreement (and in some cases here, though not many in this case, sound changes have eroded the original form). The basic stem of verbs is considered to be perfective. The imperfective is marked with what once was a simple reduplication of the onset and nucleus of the first syllable, though that relationship has been heavily obscured by sound changes in many verbs. I'll give a few examples of reduplicated stems from the verbs I listed above, as well as one more:

• memngôny- [memˈŋɔːŋ] IPFV-know
• kakllîng- [kakˈlɪːŋ] IPFV-hydrate
• hîyînû- [ˈxɪːjiːniː] IPFV-fight

These are relatively straightforward reduplicated stems, though that last does retain a /j/ lost in the original stem and each example here has a vowel that's unpredictable from the remaining stem. However, a lot worse is possible. For example:

• ti [ti] "to dream" > koti- [kuti] IPFV-dream

Câynqasang's sound changes make things weird sometimes.
I'll give a couple quick example sentences to show how this all works in context:
Mka mngônytûlvu nê cêh. [mka ˈmŋɔːŋtiːlvu neː t͡ʃɛːx] 1S.DAT know-PST-1S DEF.SPEC.P 3P "I always knew these things against my will". (Dative case here means unwilling.)
Vo amdî titkârancomdû i êlak. [vo amˈdiː titˈkɐːrant͡sumdiː i ˈɛːlak] INDEF.NSPEC 3S.INS IPFV-sabotage-3S DEF.SPEC airlock "Someone is sabotaging the airlock." (Here, the indefinite nonspecific article means this is an unknown party; if it was one of a known group of people doing this, definite nonspecific ve would take its place.)
Moving on.

Auxiliary Verbs, Tense, and Other Stuff

Câynqasang has an extensive set of auxiliary verbs that handle more complex tense, aspect, and mood in addition to negation and the passive voice. These are one of the areas where the differences between the formal and informal registers are most visible. I'll give the formal and then the informal forms:
Formal:
Main Auxiliary
https://preview.redd.it/8mivjgfpp40d1.png?width=1221&format=png&auto=webp&s=c7782643b3a8aa68519a94eda8ff3601295d910e
Negative Auxiliary
https://preview.redd.it/1hzmiy7tp40d1.png?width=1228&format=png&auto=webp&s=c74a5edcb34618b5c3da140763f07a72acd557e6
Passive Auxiliary
https://preview.redd.it/0atqspxwp40d1.png?width=1228&format=png&auto=webp&s=a8b8696f3d3996766dd49ef7c5f563907b9ae6bd
Main auxiliary (informal)
https://preview.redd.it/xmuvwfe0q40d1.png?width=1236&format=png&auto=webp&s=a705b0c340c5acfe2fd4d1d43daade0e75379348
Negative auxiliary (informal)
https://preview.redd.it/oglmiic2q40d1.png?width=1222&format=png&auto=webp&s=b6675c0f29082e79d2559c84bdd50e2803bede1b
Passive auxiliary (informal)
https://preview.redd.it/ssxjxya4q40d1.png?width=1211&format=png&auto=webp&s=651ad5fa11c313b54bc485c6b5a0a73ac6341044
Note the additional degree of fusion in the informal register, and the reduction of some syllables such that none of the informal register forms are more than disyllabic.
In constructions, these precede the lexical verb, and the lexical verb takes a participle or a converb. Again, couple of example sentences:
No ôngsa sîtêla no, nang ôngsa vînray kîvrongtadêv nê cêh. [no ˈɔːŋsa ˈʃɪːteːla no, nɐŋ ˈɔːŋsa ˈvɪːnraj ˈkɪːvruŋtadeːv neː t͡ʃɛːx] 2P.DAT NEG.2P see-CONV.GEN 2P.DAT 2P.INS NEG.2P HORT confirm-PTCP DEF.SPEC.P 3P "Not having seen these things for yourselves, you ought not to confirm them."
This example has one clause that uses a converb with the negative auxiliary and one that uses the present participle with the hortative form of the negative auxiliary, in the formal register this two-part ôngsa vînray situation. Another example:
Ye i côl sanqe kamesîtêl, yâkînghê ola lamnyunqicêh, [je i t͡sɔːl saˈɴe kameˈʃɪːteːl ˈjɐːkiːŋxeː uˈla lamŋuɴiˈt͡ʃɛːx] And DEF.SPEC 3P.GEN PERF.3P happen-CONV.GEN soul-P 1P.GEN peaceful-FUT.3P "And having felt all of these things come to pass, our souls will know peace,"
The broader work I pulled this from uses the informal register just about exclusively despite some of its other formatting. This example here includes a converb clause with an auxiliary.
So, that's a quick and dirty overview of verbs in Câynqasang, Sometime in the future I'll dive into converbs, relativization, derivational morphology, or some other feature of the language, or maybe I'll get more specific about the lexicon or about some of the uses of a feature I've already covered. Thanks for reading!

Hello, I fully understand they/them being singular. I feel I am fairly clued up on non binary, trans, and genderqueer terms.
However, I have just come across someone who uses plural pronouns as their pronouns, aka "us" instead of "me", "we" instead of "I". They do not have a multiple personality disorder, DID, or anything similar.
Does anyone know why they would do that, and is there a name for it?
This is the first time I've come across plural nouns for a singular person.

Editing from feedback to say I think it’s all obscure lol. Sorry it’s difficult. If it helps, I’m neurodivergent, so maybe neurodivergent so my brain might work differently than a lot of peoples…
…
I think it’s pretty easy except that purple might be a bit obscure.
Let me know how it goes?
Also two little hints or clarifications… Whether a noun is singular or plural makes no difference. I should’ve been consistent maybe. Also, I think there is one answer in blue and one answering purple that could be interchangeable for one another. Sorry if that’s frustrating.
https://connectionsplus.io/game/r3zUV3

Im almost in 9th grade in high school and this year was terrible especially in the 4th quarter. The only subject im somewhat not avarage/trash at is math cuz no memorization.
Tbh i stock knowledged every subject except Chinese
Chinese was trash for me cuz every question needed memorization WORD FOR WORD AND NO USING YOUR OWN FUCKING WORDS AND YOU ONLY HAVE 1-2 WEEKS TO MEMORIZE. I DON'T EVEN LEARN ANYTHING EVEN THOUGH MY FIRST LANGUAGE WAS A CHINESE DIALECT
Its like in a exam there is an essay but you need to write down the text book explanation and if you use different words to explain you get a deduction
Other subjects also sucks like the home economics class and I failed every quiz and I only passed bc of practicals but I need to ask this. Why do we even have to study food history in home economics? home economics is one of the most important things to learn but we only get it twice a week in the same day
Other subjects are like "write an essay about ________ and why is it important?"

Chrisean Rock Astrology Forecast As Of May 11, 2024

With Mother's Day tomorrow and Chrisean Rock being a new mom, let's just do an updated astrology reading for her by checking her birth chart.
As we know, Chrisean was born in Baltimore and is known for her appearance on Baddies with Natalie Nunn and her own show she had with Blueface.
We know that she is a Pisces which is her sun sign/zodiac sign. She has a Cancer Moon which rules your emotions and emotional state.
Uranus is currently sextile Chrisean Rock's sun which means that she will be openly showing unpredictability and will likely be shocking people and even herself.
Uranus is in her 12th house which is the house of the unknown and blind spots as well. This can mean that she will have breakthroughs and insights. Could even result in premonitions and informative dream states.
Pluto is the planet known for exposing and causing change and this planet is currently opposing her North Node which shows that there will be a gradual process in her doing what she is supposed to be doing and going in the right direction. Pluto isn't making any connections with her personal planets yet, so she isn't expected to be going through anything too major right now.
Jupiter sextile her sun is giving her the expanding energy for her sports endeavor. Her Aries Mars will always see her through naturally though.
Let's go forward to the following month, June on this day to see what she may be experiencing.
Jupiter is the ruler of her 7th and 10th house and on June 11, 2024, she will have Jupiter squaring her Venus and Mercury which means that there can be issues with points getting across or communication issues between her and family or her and Blueface. She is likely to be intuitive around this time with Jupiter making a trine to her natal Neptune.
Since Jupiter will be squaring her Mercury and Venus, let's put focus on the fact that Mercury rules her ascendant and 4th house which is why there can be a link with family or her lover if it isn't about her mindset. Virgo being in her 4th house though makes it more tangible. Venus rules her 12th house and 5th house of romance and children. Basically this whole Jupiter aspect transit could be connected to her family. Let's see what happens.
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• Meet the Kyanah -- the alien civilization I've been working on since 2016
• A Primer on Kyanah Physiology
• Aliens Deserve Alien Brains
• A Primer on Kyanah Pack Dynamics
• Advanced Kyanah Psychology: Inter-Pack Dynamics
• The Motives for Project Hope: Part I
• The Motives for Project Hope: Part II
• The Motives for Project Hope: Part III
• The Motives for Project Hope: Part IV
• The Motives for Project Hope: Part V
• Intro to Kyanah Politics
• An (abridged) Beastiary of the Kyanah Homeworld
• Plantlife of the Kyanah Homeworld
• An Analysis of Kyanah Military Forces: Part I -- Tech
• An Analysis of Kyanah Military Forces: Part II -- Organizational Structure
• An Analysis of Kyanah Military Forces: Part III -- Military Doctrine
• Alien Computers Are Alien
• Alien Computers Are Alien -- Part II: Kyanah-Human Cyberwarfare
• Alien Computers Are Alien -- Part III: A Guide to Kyanah Internets
• A Look Into the Kyanah Education System
• A Rare Look at Kyanah Living Spaces
• A Primer on Kyanah Economics
• Kyanah Food and Drink
• The Kyanah Have A Desert Planet -- Wait No It Has 12 Biomes: Part I
• The Kyanah Have A Desert Planet -- Wait No It Has 12 Biomes: Part II
• Kyanah City-State Dynamics: Part I -- Intercity Relations
• Kyanah City-State Dynamics: Part II -- City-State Demographics
• A Map of the Kyanah Homeworld: Part I
• Some Notes on Kyanah Timekeeping
• Profiles of Kyanah City States: Part I -- the Rktakian Kwardniet
• Profiles of Kyanah City States: Part II -- the Far South
• Profiles of Kyanah City States: Part III -- Everywhere Else

As was (maybe) previously stated, Kyanah don't have distinct languages with specific labels, yet this does not mean that they all share a common language. The vernacular tends to differ slightly from city-state to city-state; in the next city-state over, there might only be a few small spelling and pronunciation changes or some differences in handling obscure grammatical edge cases, but as one goes further and further away, the differences quickly accumulate. In most regions of the world, it's possible to understand the language up to a few hundred kilometers away from one's home city-state without dedicated study, but there's no hard-and-fast boundary where one language "ends" and another "begins". For this reason, linguistic aptitude is not a function of how many languages a particular Kyanah knows, but how large of an area they can make themselves understood in. Many of the specific vocabulary and grammatical structures used in Ikun are understood by educated Kyanah in other parts of the world, and tend to be used in settings where packs from many different regions of the world, with few or no linguistic features in common, must communicate, such as science or diplomacy. Due to Ikun's soft power and large-scale internet footprint, this is especially common in Net Zone 1; most but not all online content from this region is at least somewhat understandable to Kyanah from Ikun.
Notably, Kyanah have a syrinx rather than a larynx, meaning that their spoken languages are not pronounceable by humans and they also generally cannot pronounce human languages. Their typical vocalizations tend to sound like a mixture of rapid-fire grunts, hisses and chirps or screeches, which can vary considerably in pitch and cadence--not too dissimilar from how small theropods are believed to have sounded. Various low-pitched bellows and roars appear to be used in the same manner as shouting, being used to be heard across long distances, draw attention, or express anger. Naturally, this has presented considerable difficulties in translating proper nouns. With nothing else to go on, they have been forced to simply do a one-to-one replacement of the characters in their proper nouns with those in the Latin alphabet that most closely resemble them; humans have altered the conversion charts slightly in order to produce more consistently coherent and pronounceable results. Thus, for instance, the label "Kyanah" is simply a human construct and sounds absolutely nothing like what they call their species in their (as in, the soldiers from Ikun city-state) own spoken language. Actual communication between species was initially done through ad hoc gesticulation and amalgamations of human and Kyanah sign languages, which was gradually formalized in the first few years of the invasion, as well as occasionally communicating through writing or drawing when practical. By the end of the war, reliable inter-species machine translation and text-to-speech software would be developed, and in the subsequent years, this would advance to BCI devices that could generate speech in real-time, although not particularly reliable. Interestingly, even Kyanah who have a high base vocabulary of human words seem to struggle significantly with things like modifiers and word ordering, as their own languages tend to handle them in a radically different fashion.
For instance, over 95% of Kyanah writing systems organize words into binary trees rather than linear sentences, with children being semantically related to parents (e.g. subject and object, modifier and modified etc.). Linear scripts, while not unheard of, tend to be rare and associated with more primitive cultures, regardless of whether they're left to right, right to left, or top to bottom. It generally is not particularly important which words are the parent, left child, and right child; the writer chooses in order to optimize the aesthetics of their sentence-trees or place emphasis on a particular word. The nature of the semantic relationship between parents and children in the sentence-trees is denoted not by words comprised of characters, but by special markings called decorators, which in spoken language are expressed using subtle variations in tone, cadence, and volume, while in written language, they take the form of different types of lines between parent and child words. In most languages, decorators are also used for such things as prepositions, conjunctions, and tenses instead of using actual words for such things, resulting in all words referring to specific things or concepts, instead of having glue words that tie together other words or word groups like many human languages do. For instance, "You are eating", "You ate", "You will eat", "Are you eating?", and "Eat" (as an imperative command) all use the exact same words, with the difference lying in the decorators (or the tone/cadence/volume variations if spoken). It gets wilder, in Ikun, "Are the nyrud or the tyukrud in the field?" and "The nyrud and the tyukrud are out of the field." also use the exact same words. It's thus possible, in some cases, to meaningfully answer a question, especially a yes-no question, by simply repeating it back! (Albeit with variations in how the words are said, and with the caveat that simply "False" would be a much more succinct and natural response in this context.) For obvious reasons, decorators are dreaded by any humans attempting to learn Kyanah writing, and explain why Kyanah have an odd tendency to drop glue words and struggle with tenses when using human writing systems. In general, having a syrinx instead of a less complicated larynx allows them to make their vocalizations more compact by expressing a broader range of sounds, making the use of decorators instead of full words to save time a practical option.
Pronouns are another key difference; Kyanah have a whole set between singular and plural pronouns that they use to refer to packs, leaving human translators to awkwardly bounce between them when trying to translate these pronouns. Pack pronouns are a cultural universal for Kyanah; every single known language has them. It is customary to use pack pronouns when speaking to or about a member of another pack, even when only referring to that specific individual; using singular pronouns is usually a faux pas as it implies a higher-than-accurate degree of familiarity and intimacy, similar to a human walking up to a stranger and calling their spouse babe; or in the case of first-person singular, implies that the speaker is in some way deviating from their pack, if they have one. "I like nyrud steaks", when said to someone outside the speaker's pack, would for example strongly imply that the speaker's packmates in fact dislike nyrud steaks, and the speaker is the only one who likes them; saying it to another packmate however would have the connotation that humans would expect. The natural human tendency is to refer to packs using the plural pronouns, as they do in fact consist of multiple distinct individuals, but Kyanah would interpret this as referring to some vague, unspecified group, rather than their own pack. Additionally, as packs are atomic units in Kyanah society, occupying a single role and a single occupation, and being treated as one entity by their legal system, using plurals can create awkward statements in human languages and some meaning can be lost in translation.
Because the Kyanah use sentence-trees rather than linear sentences, languages aren't categorized into subject-verb-object, object-verb-subject, etc. but rather but the method in which the trees are traversed. Around 50% of the homeworld's population uses in-order traversal (left-child parent right-child), while 30%, including Ikun city-state, use pre-order traversal (parent left-child right-child) and the remaining 20% use post-order traversal (left-child right-child parent). To preserve the binary tree structure and prevent sentence-trees from exploding in size when dealing with many subjects/objects/etc. at once, lists of words with the same role in the sentence are placed into containers so as to occupy a single node. Kyanah sentence-trees can go on indefinitely as long as they are focusing on a singular subject; if the primary subject changes, a new sentence-tree must be started. Traditional Kyanah writing involves ornate sentence-trees shaped into aesthetically pleasing or meaningful shapes and sentence-trees are arranged on the page in a visually significant way; this sort of writing is roughly analogous to human calligraphy. Such niceties are typically ignored when typing on computers, in the name of efficiency and ease of programming. Instead, sentence-trees are automatically configured into rigid, standardized shapes and arranged on the page in such a way as to minimize wasted space, while still allowing for the creation of multiple threads. Naturally, traditional-minded Kyanah have been complaining about this since the invention of the computer, saying that it strips away subtle meaning and emotion from the text. However, the desire for efficiency has generally overruled such concerns in mainstream society.
Sentence-trees can be placed anywhere on the page, rather than following a particular order, though there is usually a clearly defined starting and ending point to a sequence; when the next tree in the sequence is not obvious from the position and orientation of the previous one, there is usually some arrow or other marker to point the path. Written works usually contain multiple sequences, each of which will take its own individual path around the page, and each of which is (at least primarily) written by a particular pack member. For this reason, written works are generally meant to be read by a pack collectively, with each member following one thread and later switching threads or explaining relevant aspects to each other if needed. Written works can be read by a single individual, but this requires the reader to frequently context switch between disparate threads that may only be loosely related to each other at times. Single threaded works do exist, but they are considered a separate form of art from mainstream, multi-threaded Kyanah literature. Multi-threaded literature is a direct descendent of story-threads, an ancient Kyanah art form and pastime that likely predates recorded history by a long shot, where members of a pack will take turns speaking sentences to collaboratively build a story. Good ones are sometimes written down and published, allowing other packs to enjoy them (sometimes even hundreds or thousands of years later), with each member of a pack choosing a thread and taking turns reading aloud their part of the story-thread and reenacting it. Interestingly, it is not just literature that is written this way; even textbooks, manuals, and research papers are all written in the same multi-threaded manner, and are likewise designed to be read by an entire pack.
There are plenty of distinct quirks between the different linguistic practices (using the term "language" may be a misnomer as linguistic practices tend to be continuous instead of being divided into discrete languages) in different parts of the world. Other than sentence-tree traversal, some of the most important differences center around the structure of words themselves. In most northern hemisphere scripts, characters represent sounds and have no intrinsic meaning on their own, while words are created by chaining these characters together based on the chronological order that they are pronounced. In southern hemisphere scripts, characters usually represent a few hundred basic objects and concepts and words are created by combining them, either in a linear chain or a graph-like structure, and the graphs tend to have their own unique algorithms for traversing them when reading or speaking, making such linguistic practices among the hardest to learn. For instance, in Kanenhah, "nuke" can be written (or spoken) by combining the characters for "made" (as in, made by Kyanah, not natural), "sun", and "egg" into a graph where the first two connect to the third, while in Koranah, the same word created by linearly chaining characters for "place" and "destroy" plus decorators to make the literal meaning "place destroyer" (which are written and pronounced somewhat differently from Kanenhah's characters for "place" and "destroy"). As an aside--the explanation for why there are so many broad and sweeping changes in language style and culture in general between the northern and southern hemispheres (a divide similar in many ways to the Western and Eastern worlds on Earth) is that impact ranges tend to cluster around the equator, which historically made travel between hemispheres much more difficult than travel within hemispheres. (I totally thought that through ahead of time, and didn't just make it up to retroactively justify the north-south divide.)

Hi, all!
For a bit of context: I'm about to wrap up my first full year of teaching. I work for a conservation nonprofit that runs various after-school and summer programs. Here, I'm responsible for writing the curriculum and facilitating the programs; it's a one-man job, with bits of support from the rest of our team. I started in April 2023, so finished off where those kids' last teacher left off. This year's cohort is my first from the beginning of the year to the end.
I wanted to share one of my kids' success stories. It was a meaningful moment for me, but when I congratulated him, I could tell everything in his brain clicked at that moment.
This is about a 4th grader named Alex. (Names changed for privacy).
Alex is the younger brother of a girl named Jessica, who I had the brief pleasure of teaching for two months, before she aged out of our programs. She's what a lot of teachers would consider a prodigy — brilliant, eager to participate, and gives meaningful responses when asked a question. Learning, for her, came easy.
During the summertime, I met her brother, Alex, who was just becoming old enough to participate in our programs. Contrary to Jessica, Alex hated science (our program's focus), struggled with confidence, and lived in his sister's shadow.
When I first met Alex, he refused to participate in our program's daily opening protocol, avoided participating, and hated being outside and learning out science. His worst fear was using any words in Hawaiian, which is a big component of our program.
Once the school year came around, and he joined our weekly after-school program (because I encouraged him to do so), we kicked off the year with entrance quizzes. I told the kids they're low stakes, and only get graded to see how far they've come at the end of the year. Alex scored low on his entrance quiz — less than 20% correct. This was unsurprising, since many kids didn't do better than 50%, but his score was among the lowest in his grade.
I had a really meaningful conversation with him a couple weeks ago, where he shared with me that, since starting our program, he has started to like science — and realized it isn't actually that boring! He didn't care about our program at the beginning, but now, he looks forward to it every week. (Not to mention, I'm his favorite teacher. I definitely cried a little.)
We just took our EOY quizzes. I know Alex has struggled with school all year, and his grades have reflected that struggle. However, Alex scored higher than most of the 5th graders in our program, and showed the most growth from the beginning to end of our program. In the questionnaire portion of the quiz, it asked how he felt about science and spending time outside, and he said he LOVES both, when in the beginning, he marked both as, "I HATE IT!"
At the end of the day, yesterday, I praised him for all the hard work, and told him I was so incredibly proud of him. When I told him just how much his score improved, his jaw dropped, and all he could say was, "Really?"
Anyway, just wanted to share the story of this really awesome kid.
Thanks for reading!

Since there has been quite a few discussions on Al-Salat, I just posted a two part analysis on the subject. My original post was some years back. This is an updated version of it.
AN excerpt:
"Before we get into the main debate of what is Al-Salat, allow me to summarize the latest research in the field of mindful meditation and ritualistic chanting. And how it all ties into the freeing of our minds to become more rational, positive, forward looking and grounded.
I will touch on a few findings and give the links to the relevant studies at the bottom of this write-up.
Feeling like your thoughts are in a never-ending loop?
Ever find yourself obsessing over a work email you sent, wondering if you could've worded it better? Or maybe replaying a social interaction that didn't go as smoothly as you hoped? That’s what the relevant experts call rumination, and it’s like your brain is stuck in a loop, fixating on moments you wish you could redo.
Understanding Rumination: Think of your brain as a high-powered, incredibly efficient processor. When you're ruminating, it's as if this processor is running an inefficient program that's draining your mental battery, like when your laptop keeps overheating from too many open tabs. That would be me.
A few words on OCD: Now imagine your brain relentlessly bombarding you with intrusive thoughts, like a nagging doubt about whether you turned off the stove, even though you’ve checked it multiple times. Even more disturbing is when you try to assign blame to yourself for disasters miles away from you.
Intrusive thoughts: Why they happen and how to deal with them.
Occasionally, you’re minding your own business when a weird – and sometimes disturbing or upsetting – thought pops into your head. Why does your brain do this, and does it mean that you’re a bad person? Or even losing your mind. So, what is going on?
The Sci-Fi of Your Brain: The Default Mode Network (DMN): This network is like your brain’s background app. It’s most active when you're not focusing on the task at hand. It’s what kicks in when you’re showering and suddenly start overanalyzing a conversation from five years ago.
So, what is the fix?
Well, it so happens that meditation experience is associated with differences in default mode network activity and connectivity.
Hacking Your Brain’s Default Mode: The goal is to shift your brain from a state of unproductive rumination to proactive problem-solving. It's like choosing to focus on strategizing your career path or planning your next big adventure instead of dwelling on past mistakes.
The Power of Rituals and Chanting: Incorporating rituals or chanting might sound old-school, but it’s like a mental reset button. Starting your day with a mindfulness exercise or repeating affirmations like "I am capable and strong" can steer your mind away from intrusive thoughts and towards more constructive patterns.
Real Science Backs This Up: Regular practice over 4 to 6 weeks can rewire your brain, enhancing its ability to plan and solve problems – akin to updating your personal software to improve performance and efficiency in every aspect of your life.
The Bottom Line: It’s not about erasing your repetitive behavior; it's about updating your mental toolkit. You're not just stopping the negative cycles; you're starting positive ones. It's a mental upgrade, ensuring your brain is as optimized and forward-thinking as you are in your career and personal life.
There is growing evidence that simple, everyday changes to our lives can alter our brains.
That brings us to the Question, did God cover this extremely important part of our make up in the Quran? Where one can reset our brain’s neural networks in a matter of weeks and pull oneself back into the sphere of rationality from a reactionary emotional mess.
Two things are incessantly emphasized in the Quran, the establishing of Al-Salat and giving thought. Given this backdrop, we will now explore the wisdom behind how to achieve it through the verses of the Quran.
Unfortunately, there is a minority of folks out there who have failed to recognize the true wisdom behind the three times a day grounding exercise through Al-Salat. This lot has irrationally taken upon themselves to go against almost every culture out there and declare rituals as something bad. They then strangely identify Al-Salat as merely a ritual and then attempted to explain it away with linguistic gymnastics. Perhaps the important physical elements of it have thrown them off. I feel this is an emotional route. Rituals are not inherently bad. In terms of religion this is a reactionary approach. Just because bad religions use rituals doesn’t mean all rituals lose currency.
To be clear we will be discussing Al-Salat the noun. Repeated sixty-six times in the Quran (Salat is mentioned 99 times in all its forms). Once as plural and the rest of the time as singular. In fact, I view it as an aid and much closer to mindful meditation. Equating Al-Salat with meditation is very tempting. Especially when long-term practitioners of the ‘art’ put a lot of emphasis on awareness. As opposed to emptying one’s mind and all that jazz. Dhikr and be conscious (ٱتَّقِ), wrongly translated as fear, fits perfectly well here.
The very word Salat predates the revelation of Quran. This is not a new word, the word most probably migrated from Classical Syriac. The spelling of Salat differs from earlier Arabic literature, where ‘waw’ was often used instead of ‘Alif’. The pronunciation stays the same. Not surprisingly Quran mentions a number of earlier Prophets/Messengers engaged in Al-Salat.
Another thing to keep in mind is that both Al-Salat and Al-Zakat are mentioned together a total of 32 times in the Quran. Another 5 times the word spend is used in conjunction to remove any doubt as to what is meant by Al-Zakat. Out of the remaining 27 times Al-Salat is mentioned, 11 and possibly 12 times in instructional verses. Hence, a mere 15 out of a total of 66 mentions of Al-Salat are verses that decouple Al-Salat and Zakat, all the rest of noninstructional verses establish a very strong link between them. The significance of these exact numbers is perhaps a subject of separate research but this much is clear, they are intertwined in a very profound way. We should keep this link in mind when defining A-Salat and Al-Zakat.
The Quran, in addition to reminding us of our forgetful nature, also defines the three main objectives of Al-Salah. A prescribed prayer at designated times is a perfect cure for forgetful nature. The three objectives are:

1. Dhikr (Remembrance for want of a better term) Quran 20:14
2. To seek help from God Quran 2:45 and
3. The prevention of immorality and “evil” deeds Quran 29:45 and 19:59

Bonus effect: When Al-Salat and giving of Al-Zakat are clubbed together, it strengthens our certainty of faith in the hereafter. Quran 27:3. Once again we should keep this association in mind when attempting to define either of them."
https://www.reddit.com/Quran_focused_Islam/comments/1coz745/what_is_alsalat/