Prince of Egypt animated cartoon brought me here as Yocheved is referenced as Moses' mother while in THe Ten COmmandments film, her name is pronounced Yochebed. Also - Spanish has the word for twenty, venty with a soft b on the v.
In Spanish, the letters "b" and "v" are pronounced the same way, with a slight difference:

• At the beginning of a word or after "m" and "n": Pronounced like a soft version of the English "b"
• In all other positions: Pronounced like the English "v" with the lips touching

In phonetics, the two different sounds are called the "plosive B/V sound" and the "approximant B/V sound". The difference is more in how the mouth is used, specifically the lips, rather than the letter being pronounced. In Latin America, the letters "b" and "v" are called "be" and "ve", respectively, and are pronounced identically. To avoid confusion, Spanish speakers in Latin America may add adjectives to distinguish them. For example, "ve corta" means "short", "ve chica" means "small", and "ve chiquita" means "very small".
The Hebrew letter bet (ב) can be pronounced as a "b" or a "v" depending on whether it has a dot in the middle. A dot in the middle, called a dagesh, indicates a "b" sound, while no dot indicates a "v" sound. WikipediaBet (letter) - WikipediaThe Hebrew letter represents two different phonemes: a "b" sound (/b/) (bet) and a "v" sound (/v/) (vet). When Hebrew is written Ktiv menuqad (with niqqud diacritics) the two are distinguished by a dot (called a dagesh) in the centre of the letter for /b/ and no dot for /v/.
Alphabet- Alef,Bet #shorts #learnhebrew #hebrew - YouTubeFeb 24, 2023 — the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet is a left alif alef is silent when it has no vowel. but the bass sound of bet is b as in Bob. now pay attention to the dot inside the letter which is that the gesh. the dagesh brings the emphasis to that letter three of the letters have a variation with the dagesh with the dot. and without so in this case bet with the dagesh makes b as in Bob. and without the dagesh it's called the vet. and it makes as in gov.Hebrew Today
The Hebrew Letter Bet (ב)This may make it easy to remember the name and sound of the Bet if you are first learning the Hebrew alphabet or learning the Hebrew language, and it gives you another word to add to your Hebrew vocabulary list, as well! The Bet is generally pronounced like a “B,” but sometimes, if it doesn't have a dot (called a “dagesh” in Hebrew) in the middle, it then becomes the Hebrew letter Vet and has a “V” sound. These sounds are often similar in many world languages. In Spanish, for example, the “B” may often sound more like a “V” and vice versa.Here are some other ways to determine the pronunciation of bet:

• Beginning of words: Bet is pronounced as a "b" at the beginning of words
• After another consonant: Bet is pronounced as a "b" after another consonant
• When doubled: Bet is pronounced as a "b" when doubled, such as in the word "Sabbath"
• After a vowel: Bet is pronounced as a "v" after a vowel
• At the end of a word: Bet is pronounced as a "v" at the end of a word

In voweled Hebrew, which is only used in the Bible or in children's readers, a dagesh in the middle of bet indicates a "b" sound. However, in normally printed Hebrew, it's not possible to tell if bet is doubled or no

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https://www.reddit.com/conorthography/comments/1bugubp/a_spelli%EA%AC%BB_refom_for_american_inglish/
My introductory post is above.
I wanted to show off some of the changes I've considered and the new alphabet I'd suggest. I'll show off the alphabet, then show the accents and their use.
Ћe letres of þi alfabet
Aa /æ/ Bb /bi/ Cc /si/ Dd /di/ Ii /i/ Ff /ef/ Gg /d͡ʒi/ Hh /eɪt͡ʃ/ Ee /eɪ/ Jj /d͡ʒeɪ/ Kk /keɪ/ Ll /el/ Mm /em/ Nn /en/ Oo /oʊ/ Pp /pi/ Qq /kju/ Rr /ɑ Ss /es/ Tt /ti/ Uu /ju/ Vv /vi/ Ɯɯ /dubble ju/ Xx /eks/ Yy /waɪ/ Zz /zi/
à /æ/ shows stress where it normally wouldn't occur: e.g. analysis -> anàlysiʃ
á /ɑ/ shows stress and that the a is /ɑ/ not /æ/ e.g. water -> ɯáter
ä /eɪ/ suggests stress, unless in compound word e.g. care -> cäre; airplane -> airplän; to compare, comparison -> ta compäre, compärasson (from Old French comparaison, from Latin comparatio)
ā /eɪ/ stressed and suggests vowel change in other forms e.g. nation, national -> nācion, nacional; negative, to negate, negation -> negatif, ta negāte, negācion
Otherwise, the most common is: -ate, -ation -> -ete, -aiçon e.g. to animate, animation -> ta animete, animaiçon (Modern French typically does -er -> -ation; e.g. animer, l'animation)
ç /ʃ/ typically used for -ation -> -aiçon e.g. animation -> animaiçon; cushion -> cuçon; fashion -> façon; action -> acçon
â /ɑ stressed, e.g. barn -> bân
ao /aʊ/ e.g. power -> paor; hour -> aor
au /ɔ/
ì /ɪ/ stressed e.g. committee -> comìti
í /i/ stressed e.g. seat -> sít
î /i stressed
aî /aɪɚ/ stressed, e.g. to admire -> to admaîe; to inspire -> to inspaîe
aì /aɪ/ stressed, e.g. admirer -> admaìrer
è /ɛ/ stressed
é /eɪ/ stressed
ê /ɝ/ stressed e.g. to merge -> ta mêge; emergency -> emêgency; to earn -> ta êne
eî /eɪ stressed, e.g. impairment -> impeîment (comes from Latin peior) ei /aɪ/ e.g. time -> teim
ò /ɔ/ e.g. cough -> còff
oh /ɔ/ e.g. caught, taught, bought, fought -> coht, toht, boht, foht ó /ɑ/ stressed
ō /oʊ/ stressed, e.g. hynosis, to hynotize -> hipnōsiʃ, ta hìpnotyse
ô /ɔ e.g. corn -> côn
-ôve /ɝv/ e.g. curve -> côve
-oeve /uv/ e.g. to prove -> ta proeve
ù /ʌ/ stressed, e.g. reductive -> redùctif
ú /u'/ (lol, reddit) e.g. kangaroo -> kängarú
(o)û /ɝ/ e.g. turn -> toûn, urn -> oûn
ỳ /ɪ/
ý /i/
Ћþ voiced or unvoiced dental fricative
ȶ when t becomes "ch" e.g. feat, feature -> fiet, fieȶure
ᶁ when d becomes "j" e.g. proceed, procedure -> procide, procíᶁure
b̃ suggests yod: e.g. to rebuke -> ta reb̃uqe
c̃ suggests yod: e.g. to evacuate -> to evac̃uete
g̃ suggests yod: e.g. to argue -> ta arg̃ue
h̃ suggests yod: e.g. human -> h̃uman
m̃ suggests yod: e.g. to amuse -> to am̃use
ñ suggests yod: e.g. onion -> oñon
p̃ suggests yod: e.g. to puke -> ta p̃uqe
s̃ /ʃ/ or /ʒ/ if between vowels: e.g. permission -> permiss̃on, explosion -> explos̃on
x̃ /kʃ/ e.g. sexual -> sex̃ual (rare)
z̃ /ʒ/ e.g. azure -> az̃ure (rare)
ʃ "long s" used for adjectives and Greek words ending in -sis, e.g. glamorous -> glamoroʃ; hypnosis, hypnoses -> hipnōsiʃ, hipnōsis
ꬻ /eng/ used for "-ing", e.g. singing -> singuiꬻ, eating -> itiꬻ

What Makes Japanese-to-English Translation and Localization So Challenging?

ByFrancesca PaolucciOctober 7, 2022

Key takeaways:

• Japanese translation can take longer than expected
• The Japanese language has 3 alphabets
• There are a variety of grammatical inconsistencies
• Context is crucial in the Japanese language
• Honorifics are important even for web localization
• Transcreation is the re-engineering of a brand message for a specific audience

Translation from Japanese to English is infamously challenging. The act of translating can be tedious. It’s very difficult to faithfully translate a document while also making it readable and culturally appropriate for the target audience.
It is an art form in and of itself and not just a work of word substitution. A difficult balancing act that requires a translator to have knowledge of not just the source and destination languages but also of society and culture.
John Dryden, an English poet and translator, said that it would be absurd to confine a translator to the limited scope of his author’s words: “What is lovely in one language is frequently vulgar, and even gibberish, in another.”
What transpires then in translation projects if the target languages are utterly dissimilar?
Japanese is a challenging language for Westerners to learn. A totally different alphabet, the context-heavy character of Japanese, the usage of honorifics, as well as significant variations in syntax and sentence structure, are all challenges. The fact that translating Japanese can take a translator twice as long or more is therefore not surprising.
Therefore, using machine translation from Japanese to English is never a wise idea. Although technology has advanced rapidly, the complexity of translation means that you will still end up with a text that is entirely useless.
Here are some of the factors that make translating from Japanese to English so challenging:

Japanese has Three Alphabets!

📷
The English and Japanese alphabets both have troubled histories that are unrelated. Not only are the languages themselves quite diverse, but the alphabets that are employed to write them are sometimes incomprehensible to native speakers.
Kanji, the Japanese alphabet, uses ideograms similar to those used in Chinese. Symbols used to convey ideas in ideograms are quite intricate. The individual strokes, their arrangement inside a character, and the many interpretations of those characters all contribute to the overall meaning.
Kanji, Hiragana, and Katakana are the three writing systems used by the Japanese. The 46 symbols that make up the Hiragana and Katakana phonetic alphabets of Japan are used to represent every sound in the Japanese language. Words taken from other languages are written in Katakana. When Kanji characters can’t be utilized, Hiragana is the next best thing. Kanji and Hiragana are frequently used to make a single word in Japanese. To put it simply, the number of Kanji characters is staggering.
Unfortunately, this distinction also implies that the way a Japanese writer structures a phrase has no direct parallel in the English language. It is impossible to demonstrate comprehension without first mastering the Japanese language.

Grammatical inconsistency

The lack of grammatical parallels between English and Japanese presents another difficulty. Among the grammatical variations are some of the following:

• There are no plural nouns; Japanese does not distinguish between plural and singular nouns. Even with pronouns and adjectives, the method of counting varies constantly.
• SOV rather than SVO - In English, the words are arranged subject, verb, and object. Japanese sentences always conclude with a verb. Therefore, before modifying the word order of a phrase, the translator must comprehend the full text.
• No topics - The subject is usually left out in Japanese. Sometimes the thing itself is.
• There is no future tense in Japanese.
• Pronouns are uncommon - Because language denotes social status in Japanese, pronouns like "I," "you," or "me" are seldom needed.
• No items that are definitive or definite.
• Because there is no counterpart in English, honorifics, or keigo, are challenging to interpret. Below, we'll go into further detail on this idea.
• Many words and phrases simply cannot be translated literally, so abstract notions are challenging to communicate.

The importance of context

Japanese is really effective at communicating so much since it is a high-context language. One sentence can reveal a lot about the context, including the time of day, the season, the speaker’s age, gender, and social standing, the listener’s age, gender, and social standing, the age, gender, and social status of a referenced third party, the speaker and listener’s social connections to the mentioned third party, and whether the situation is formal or informal.
English, on the other hand, is quite the reverse. It is a low-context language without social hierarchy indicators.

The issue of honorifics

📷
It’s doubtful that you would speak to your employer the same way you would a friend or brother; there is undoubtedly a more professional manner to speak English. But generally speaking, we are more concerned with what is said than with how what we are saying will make another person feel.
However, Japanese society has a strong tradition of formality. The Japanese language reflects the many various degrees of respect that exist.
It is crucial to utilize language to express the differences in social standing. It’s also important to consider the circumstances in which both speakers find themselves. As a result, one of the biggest difficulties in translating Japanese into English is the usage of honorifics, or keigo, in Japanese.
It is regarded as being crucial to avoid using words that might offend or degrade others.
Because of this, Japanese could occasionally come across as indirect. You wouldn’t say “I don’t like this” in Japanese. Instead, you may reply, “This may not be to my taste but it’s ok” You may choose to express the first option, but it can come out as impolite or unnecessarily direct.
When speaking to someone who is more senior to you, your tone should be one of humility while elevating the addressee. You may choose what terms to use if you are the superior or the older.
The medium also very important. The more informal approach may be appropriate if you’re translating books or news items. A formal or courteous version is more frequently used when translating government papers. When translating websites a hybrid approach is necessary depending on the product or service.

Important Definitions:

Translation: The process of converting text from one language into another while maintaining the same meaning.
Localization: When adapting a product or service for another nation or region, “localization” is a more thorough process that covers cultural and non-textual components as well as language concerns.
Transcreation: is the process of re-engineering your brand promise to connect emotionally with a new market.

Conclusion

We’ve hopefully given you a glimpse of how difficult the Japanese language can be. If you’re picking a translator, you can now appreciate how important it is for them to be well-versed in Japanese culture because it is directly related to the language.
An excellent translator should be well-versed in both English with all of its alphabets, rules, and quirks as well as Japanese ideograms, as well as that language’s syntax, context rules, and usage of honorifics.
As a business, it’s crucial to remember that while maintaining authenticity to the original text is vital, a successful translation typically focuses more on keeping the tone and spirit of the original than matching words exactly.

How we can help

At Medusa Japan with our full localization and transcreation services, your content is localized by a professional team of native, in-house Japanese translators.
We address cultural and non-textual components of your content and re-engineer your brand value proposition to engage the Japanese consumer on an emotional level.

One thing to know, in the text method, when trying to type French phrase, the most obvious part, is that somebody has to switch to a different vocabulary of words when trying to learn French, and it's a challenge to use different grammar (e.g. placing adjectives after instead of before the noun), but then there's also the challenge of using different spellings for proper nouns.....

English spelling	French spelling	explanation
America	Amerique	the -ica suffix is replaced with the -ique suffix
Christina	Christine	A is replaced with E at the end.
Parisian	Parisenne	the -an suffix is replaced with the -enne suffix.

So that's another part of the challenge.
Being analytical about how letters of the alphabet get substituted with other ones is one thing I fixate on when trying to learn languages.
If you think that switching to a different vocabulary in text/writing is hard, lets also think about word pronunciations in the speech part.

spelling	official French pronunciation, assisted with a "misspelling" using English phonetics	mispronunciation if sounded out in English	explanation
Detroit	Day-thwah	Dee-trouitt	silent T
Gourmet	Gor-May	Gor-Mett	silent T at the end, in addition to the semi-obvious "ay" where E is.
Jean	Zhann	Jeh-ne

So that should explain the challenge of switching to a different letter-to-sound cipher.
but what about the accents
I hear that some remote parts of Quebec, such as Saguenay have thick accents in French, so BEWARE if you go there.
the thing is, getting services such as going to gas stations, feels like I'm entering some LANGUAGE BARRIER zone that might cut me off from service, since I speak ENGLISH, and they speak FRENCH, and well, accents also add to the LANGUAGE BARRIER too.
So, with all that said, this is one reason why I contemplate putting a tablet computer on my chest, so that way, if I were to say some phrase to a clerk, I could do this:
here's an example:

what I type in English	how it's seen on the tablet screen
I'd like to buy twenty five dollars ($25) worth of gas.	J'aimerais acheter de l'essence pour une valeur de vingt-cinq dollars (25 $).

well, speaking English is my preferred language, however, I can't really speak French, and know that the clerks might resonate better with French.
I don't wanna deal with the overhead of accents being different, since accents can make the understood language sound like a "foreign language".
So, as a workaround, I'm talking about the idea of using a tablet as a text readout of something I'd normally say as speech in English speaking places.
as with destinations I'd go to, where I might have to resort to this tablet on chest method, well.....
Saguenay, which is north of Quebec City, maybe 2 hours away on Route 175, has very scarce English speaking available for services.
There's also Rimouski, a university community, and it also is sorta remote, so as with English speaking gas station clerks being there, I'm sorta in doubt.
so, in my imagination, I see myself having a tablet computer on my chest, just for the sake of displaying French phrases that I type as English phrases on my end. I know that there are these things called pocket translators, but then there's also tablet computers which don't actually fit in the pants pocket.
but if I go to a place like Montreal, English speaking people are plentiful there, as they deal with lots of tourists who aren't too far from the border.
Just thought I'd make a statement about my LANGUAGE BARRIER difficulties, and they go beyond just switching to a different vocab, and using a different phonetic cipher. The accents further alter that cipher to be more specific.

Good old nostalgia
T́epat/Tépat/Тепат
A Ā Ä A̦ B C Ć C̦ CH D D́ DZ E Ē E̦ Ë É F G H I Ī I̦ J JZ K K̦ KH L LZ M N Ń O Ō Ŏ P PH Q R S Ś S̋ SH T T́ TW TH T̆H TZ U Ū V W X X̦ Y Y̆ Z̋ Z Ź ZH
Letters usage in grammar: C̦ is used instead of K when its between soft vowels but you can also use it normally. Y is used instead of J, when theres a hard consonant before or after, or if it's between vowels. Otherwise its normal usage. W is only used in the beginning of words (this doesnt apply to TW). CH is used instead of K when theres a soft vowel before it, if its not used instead then its a normal H. Ä is used instead of E if the E sound is next to a voiceless consonant, or it can be used normally as well. PH is used instead of F when you say a plural form of a word, but it can also be used normally or as a regular F sound. When theres a double Ć, D́, Ń, or T́ sound, then the first sound is written in its normal form, and the second in its variant form. For example: Jzźe (this also applies to TH and T̆H). CH marks the palatalization of the next vowel, but its also sometimes used as an H. A̦ is only used in loanwords, and cannot be pronounced as an /ɒ/ when the word contains A and/or its variations, However, if there is an A̦ then its pronounced as a regular A. Ë can only be used in a word with no vowels, and only between consonants, but if theres a double letter (for example: Dzakëma) then it can be used regardless.
Soft vowels: Ä ,A, E, I
Hard vowels: Ā, A̦, Ē, Ë, Ī, I̦, U, Ū, O, Ō, Ŏ, E̦
Soft consonants: P, C, F, KH, T, TZ, R, Z,
Hard consonants: Ć, C̦, CH D, D́, DZ, G, H, J, JZ, K, K̦, L, LZ, M, N, Ń, P, PH, Q, S, Ś, S̋, SH, T́, TW, TH, T̆H, V, W, X, X̦, Y, Y̆, Z̋, Ź, ZH
Rules: Pronounciation
Pronounciation of the alphabet: (in the order of the alphabet)
a aː æ ɒ b t͡s t͡ʃ k h/k d ɟ d͡z æ æː e/eː ə je f ɡ h i iː e j ɖ͡ʑ k cː kʰ l s m n ɲ o oː ø/øː p p͡h/f q ɾ s ʃ ʂ ʃ t c t͡ʷ θ ð t͡s u uː v w x s͡k i/j y/yː ʐ z ʒ ʒ
U becomes a VŎ if theres other vowels after it. For example:
"Uonne̦" is pronounced like "Vŏnne̦".
Ū becomes a long Ŏ.
For example:
"Palamūoki" is pronounced like "Palamŏki".
Long vowels between hard consonants aren't pronounced long. (But there are some exceptions)
For example: "Sēs" becomes "Ses".
In case of MN, only M is pronounced. In case of NM, inly N is pronounced.
H after a consonant isnt pronounced with some exceptions.
Between an L and P you pronounce an E between with some exceptions. (Same applies to L and T)
An S following a H is pronounced, but the H isnt.
An S following a soft vowel isnt pronounced, but there are exceptions.
If theres a vowel-consonant after a hard consonant at the end of a word, then the 2 letters arent pronounced, with some exceptions.
The following letters: U, O, E, I arent pronounced at the end of the word. (Except conjugation and exceptions)
E Ē and E̦ arent pronounced at the start of the word, but there are exceptions.
An S at the end of the word is pronounced as a Z, but if theres a hard vowel before it, then its pronounced normally with some exceptions.
PH is pronounced F when saying a plural form of a word, and its pronounced PH when the word is not conjugated.
an O before a consonant isnt pronounced with some exceptions.
Ä is always pronounced.
Long vowels at the start of the words arent always pronounced long.
Rules: Verbs.
Verb examples:

1. To talk:
   
   • Root: C̦alt
   • Past: C̦alte
   • Future: C̦altū
2. To eat:
   
   • Root: Māl
   • Past: Māle
   • Future: Mālū
3. To dance:
   
   • Root: Rajz
   • Past: Rajze
   • Future: Rajzū
4. To create:
   
   • Root: Falt
   • Past: Falte
   • Future: Faltū

Rules: Linking verbs
it: z̋as go/to go: źof am: ka with: iyiś foto: noba that/because of/and why: kett́a from (that something): tre̦yt̆ho it needs to be: t́aźiś If/then why: binu
If you are referring to a specific thing without naming it, then you can use "će̦pa".
Kett́a is used interchangeably, depending on context.
For "are/is/it is", you need to conjugate. For example: Gajtor(bad mood) - Gajtopkla (moody) Tēpe(mold) - Teypekla (moldy) Itver(wind/air) - Itvjerkla (windy)
The word "was" is the word "it" in a past form. The word "it" (Z̋as) and the Declaratibe mode of a word can be used interchangeably.
Nouns: there are 2 type of nouns: Imperative Mode: Used for giving commands or expressing requests. Declarative Mode: Simply stating information without emphasizing mood, also used for stating facts or making statements.
Nouns:

1. Imperative Mode:
   
   • Command: C̦alya (talk!)
   • Command: Mālya (eat!)
   • Command: Rayzya (dance!)
   • Command: Faltya (create!)
2. Declarative Mode:
   
   • Statement: C̦altē (it is talked)
   • Statement: Mālto (it is eaten)
   • Statement: Rayzē (it is danced)
   • Statement: Faltū (it is created)

Word Orders:

• Imperative Mode Word Order:
  
  1. C̦alya!: C̦al ja!
  2. Mālya!: Māl ja!
  3. Rayzya!: Rajz ja!
  4. Faltya!: Falt ja!
• Declarative Mode Word Order:
  
  1. C̦altē: ** Ē C̦alt**
  2. Mālto: O malt
  3. Rayzē: E rayz
  4. Faltū: U falt

Enhancement: If your using positive, you can just sinply use the "komc̦i̦ pa", but if your using a word otherwise then you will add a "CÄ" ending. For example: Mess: "S̋all" - Really messing: "S̋allcä"
There's also neutral mode, in which Declarative mode is completely disregarded. Neutral mode is used when talking about something, and Declarative is when talking to somebody. However, you need to use Declarative mode when ypu describe how you do something. (For example in English: shopping.)
You only need to conjugate if your talking to someone, or telling a story or an observation of some kind. Anything else you need to use the word order.
Demonymic conjugations
For example:
Albańa- Albanon Serbska- Serbskon Mad́ar- Mad́un Frenq- Frena Rasi- Rason Ukrāijy- Ukrajyon
Pronouns: Person 1:Singular: Jzźa (I/me)Plural: Jzźaśa (we) Person 2:Singular: Jzźe (you)Plural: Jzźaśe (you all) Person 3:Singular: Z (he/she/it)Plural: Zaśa (they)
Person 1: Jzźäś (my) Person 2: Jzźäć (yours) Person 3: Zäś (theirs)
Person 1: Plural: Jzźaśaej (ours) Person 2: Plural: Jzźaśēj (y'alls) Person 3: Plural: Zaśaej (their alls)
Plural: When the word ends with a consonant, an E sound is added. For example: Eśt(apple) - Eśtä(apples) When the word ends with double consonants, then the E becomes an E̦, and deletes the last two consonants. For example: Sond(hedgehog) - Soe̦(hedgehogs) If it ends with a vowel, then you add either a BA(if talking about things, adjectives, etc...) or a BE(when talking about names). For example: Cazett́ā(lamp) - Cazett́aba(lamps) Kriśtafon(Christopher) - Kriśtafonbe(Christophers)
Rules: If a word ends with a vowel, then it lengthens the consonant before it. For example:
"T̆home" is pronounced "t̆homm"
Affirmative & Negative: The ending -iyo is added for negative which sometimes changes the word.
Examples:
Bave(did) - Baviyo(didnt)
Chape̦re(cooking) Chaperiyo(not cooking)
Affirmative is simply just either Declarative and Operative mode.
Example text 1:
Chose, jzźa źofe noba o phuskäń iyiś jzźäś d́y̆verske̦ba. Z̋ase komc̦i̦ pa śte jzźaśa utīre nobohi twalzadzba.
Cyrillic:
Хёс, жа жофе ноба о фускен̆ йіш жэш ґўверскеба. Жасэ комке па штэ жаша утіре нобохі тв̆асадзба.
Less diacritical version:
Chose, jzzha zhofe noba o phuskeń iyish jzzhesh d́y̆verskiba. Zhase komke pa shte utiire nobohi twalzadzba.
Translation:
Today, i went to go for shopping with my friends. It was very great and we bought a lot of things.
Literal translation:
This day, i went to go foto shopping/buying things with my friends. It was good/great very and we bought much/lot/a lot/very much things/items.
Prepositions:
at: ūi (signaling actions and/or positions of certain things) in: ūpa (in something, in doing something) on: ūpi (on that something, something on something) by: zukxe (by eachother) of: āpi (of a something)
Articles:
Definite Articles:
Kle hog
Translation: The cucumber
Gerfuk̦ pin
Translation: this pen ("That" is "Gerfuklj")
Indefinite Article:
Zź cas
Translation: a vacuum
Tenses:
Progressive: Śī(nervous) - Sīnn(will be nervous)
The simple tense is the Neutral Mode. The past and present tenses are written in the "Verbs".
Example text 2:
Chose, jzźa d́ejze kett́a jzźē klaśt tre̦yt̆ho presidentze posic̦liōn. Gerfuk̦ d́ejzi z̋ase kakli̦kale, retwezhchae, śte āsi. Ūpa nomen āpi naciōn, jzźa ćerźerka.
Cyrillic:
Хёс, жа дежe кeтя же клашт трӭдо прeсідэнце посікліён. Гэрфут̆ дежі жасэ каклікале, ретв̆ежхя, штэ асі. Упа номен апі націён, жа чэржэрка.
Less diacritical version:
Chose, jzzha déjze kett́a jzzhee klasht tre̦yt̆ho presidentze posiklioon. Gerfuk̦ déjzi zhase kaklikale, retwezhchae, shte aasi. Uupa nomen aapi nacioon, jzzha ćerzherka.
Literal translation:
This day, i decided that i'll resign/give up from (the) presidental position. This decision was calculated, motivated/on point, and brave/humble. In (the) name of (the) nation, i apologize.
Example text 3:
Gerfuk̦ patu moklej saśam nońājēkla kett́a kturū pa ūpa spelzific̦ mony̆ćertze, śte wedrō komc̦i̦ pa.
Cyrillic:
Герфут̆ пату моклӭ сашам ноняекла кэтя ктуру па упа спэсіфік монўчерце, штэ в̆эдро комке па.
Less diacritical version:
Gerfutj patu moklej sasham nońaajeekla kett́a kturuu pa uupa specifik mony̆ćertze, shte wedroo komke pa.
Translation: The reason why i like winter is basically because it is very cold in those specific months, and the weather is very good.
Literal translation: the reason/reason foa reason for something like/think its good winter basically is that/because of/and why cold very in something/in that something specific months and (the) weather is good/great very.
Example text 4: Binu zź ppën keblu, binu Marko moklejū, kett́a z komc̦i̦ pa moklē gerfuklj c̦larolo. Jzźaśa skruyo z moklē komc̦i̦ pa, z bavē.
Cyrillic:
Біну зж пен кеблу, біну Марко моклӭӱ, кетя з комке па моклэ герфуклї клароло. Жаша скруë з моклэ комке па з баве.
Less diacritical version: Binu zzh ppen keblu, binu Marko moklejuu, kett́a z komke pa moklee gerfuklj klarolo. Jzzhasha skruyo z moklee komke p, z bavee.
Translation: If a pen is blue, then Marko will like it, because he really likes that color. We dont know why he likes it so much, he just does.
Literal translation: If/then why a pen (is) blue, if/then why Marko will like (it), that/because of/and why he/she/it good/great very likes that color. We dont know (why) he/she/it likes (it) good/great very, he/she/it (just) does.
T́epat/Tépat less diacritical version.
The less diacritical version uses other letters for the same sound, containing less diacritical marks, or other letters.
T́epat/Tépat cyrillic version
Alphabet: А Б Ц Ч Д Э Ӭ Е Ë Ф Г Ґ К Х І Ї Я И Й Л М Н Н̆ О П Р С Ш Т Т̆ У Ў Ӱ В В̆ З Ж
Pronunciation of the alphabet in order: a b t͡s t͡ʃ d e ej je jo f ɡ ɟ k h i j ja ji ij l m n ɲ o p ɾ s ʃ t c u y ju v w z ʒ
The alphabet follows most of the rules of the latin version.
Example text 5: Jzźäś internet profditwa s̋allcä iyiś jzźa gorä.
Cyrillic: Жеш інтернет профдітв̆а шаллцэ іиш жа горэ.
Less diacritical version: Jzzhesh internet profditwa shallce iyish jzzha gore.
Translation: My internet provider has been really messing with me these days.
Literal translation: My internet providegiver really messing with me (these) days.
Yes i know some diacritics are lagging :(

*fictional. It isn’t the official language from any of these countries.
Occigotian (endonym: Occorgțaķa or, in full, Ligaķe Occorgțaķa) is an Eastern Romance language of the Indo-European language family, originating in the Occigotian(West Ukraine) part of the Black Sea. It is the official language of Occigotia, Romania, Moldova, Mexico, The Philippines, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Ukraine, Turkey, Brazil, Peru, Chile, Canada and Georgia, while having co-official language status in Lebanon, United States(California,Illinois,Mississippi and Wyoming), China(Guangdong,Zhenjiang,Shanghai,Jiangsu,Hebei,Tianjin,Beijing and Fujian), India(West Bengal), Japan(Tokyo,Kanagawa-Ken, Okinawa and Hokkaido) and Bulgaria. Between Parenthesis means that more Occigotian live in that area.
Occigotian is a language spoken by 104 million people worldwide. The language was spread by the Occigotian Colonization. Between 1567-1646, Occigotian colonized 4 countries(Taiwan,Hong Kong,Macau and Phillipines) and 18 islands. Occigotian Diaspora that occurred between 1800-1945, where approximately 44,8 million people left Occigotia and neighboring occigotian-speaking countries and went to places such as Brazil, the United States,Canada,China,British Raj,Japan, Taiwan, Macau, Hong Kong, Mexico, Georgia, The Philippines, Chile and Peru. Currently, 70 million people speak Occigotian as their native language, 29 million as second language, and 5 million with intermediate or basic knowledge of the language.
—Alphabet—
The letters with asterisks are variants with diacritics: A /a/ Â* /ɑ/ À* /ɒ/ Á* /ɐ/ B /β/ C /c/ Ç/ç/ D /d/ Ḑ /ɟ/ E /e/ É/æ/ È /ɛ/ Ê* /ɜː/ F /ɸ/ G /g/ H /ʜ/ I /i/ Í* /iː/ Ì* /ɪ/ Î* /ɨ/ Ï* /i̤/ J /j/ Ĵ* /ʒ/ K /k/ Ķ* /k͡s/ Ḱ* /kʲ/ L /l/ M /m/ N /n/ Ń* /ŋ/ Ņ* /ɲ/ O /o/ Ó* /ɔ/ Ò* /ɔː/ Ô* /ø/ P /p/ Ṕ* /pʼ̤/ Q /q/ R / Ŗ* /𝼈/ S /s/ Ș* /ɕ/ T /t/ Ț* /ʦ/ U Û*/ʉ/ V /v/ X /ɣ/( Before H,Q,T and V, has /ks/ sound) Z /z/
— Digraphs — Lh /ʎ/ Sj /ʃ/ Rh /χ/ Th /θ/ Vh /β/ Cc /k͡ʃ/ Ph /pʰ/ — Trigraphs — Tsj /ʧ/ — Grammar —
In Occigotian grammar, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and articles are moderately inflected: there are two genders (masculine and feminine) and two numbers (singular and plural). The case system of the ancestor language, Latin, has been lost, but personal pronouns are still declined with three main types of forms: subject, object of verb, and object of preposition. Most nouns and many adjectives can take diminutive or augmentative derivational suffixes, and most adjectives can take a so-called "superlative" derivational suffix. Adjectives usually follow their respective nouns. Verbs are highly inflected: there are three tenses (past, present, future), three moods (indicative, subjunctive, imperative), three aspects (perfective, imperfective, and progressive), three voices (active, passive, reflexive), and an inflected infinitive. Most perfect and imperfect tenses are synthetic, totaling 11 conjugational paradigms, while all progressive tenses and passive constructions are periphrastic. There is also an impersonal passive construction, with the agent replaced by an indefinite pronoun. Occigotian is generally an SVO language, although SOV syntax may occur with a few object pronouns, and word order is generally not as rigid as in English. It is a null subject language, with a tendency to drop object pronouns as well, in colloquial varieties. Like Spanish, it has two main copular verbs: sere and haxvare. It has a number of grammatical features that distinguish it from most other Romance languages, such as a synthetic pluperfect, a future subjunctive tense, the inflected infinitive, and a present perfect with an iterative sense.
Like most Indo-European languages, including English, Occigotian classifies most of its lexicon into four word classes: verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. These are "open" classes, in the sense that they readily accept new members, by coinage, borrowing, or compounding. Interjections form a smaller open class. There are also several small closed classes, such as pronouns, prepositions, articles, demonstratives, numerals, and conjunctions. A few grammatically peculiar words are difficult to categorize; these include fasû ("where is"—SAm., colloq.), mecrenuzeea("let's hope"), mecrenuzeeaman ("let's hope that"), and mà ("here is"). Within the four main classes there are many semi-regular mechanisms that can be used to derive new words from existing words, sometimes with change of class; for example, fatsje ("fast") → fatsjevoluțe ("very fast"), maḑire ("to measure") → mavairesanmo ("measurement"), ṕamgeŗņu(ķa)("pilot") → ṕamĵuŗve ("to pilot"). Finally, there are several phrase embedding mechanisms that allow arbitrarily complex phrases to behave like nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.
Following the general Indo-European pattern, the central element of almost any Occigotian clause is a verb, which may directly connect to one, two, or (rarely) three nouns (or noun-like phrases), called the subject, the object (more specifically, the direct object), and the complement (more specifically, the object complement or objective complement). The most frequent order of these elements in Occigotian is subject–verb–object (SVO, as in examples (1) and (2) below), or, when a complement is present, subject–verb–object-complement (SVOC — examples (3) and (4)): (1) {Ķa Mary}S {fuŗeveķa}V {ņu Paul}O, "Mary loves Paul." (2) {Ņu fasiņu}S {consxhiveélu}V {ķa merseden}O, "The mason has constructed the house." (3) {Ņu prunḑvel}S {namireélu}V ņu {Peter}O {ministre}C, "The president appointed Pedro (as) minister." (4) {Dal}S {fûńkredalu}V {ņu lupfe}O {úma baķxviț}C, "She found the book a bore." Any of the three noun elements may be omitted if it can be inferred from the context or from other syntactic clues; but many grammatical rules will still apply as if the omitted part were there. A clause will often contain a number of adverbs (or adverbial phrases) that modify the meaning of the verb; they may be inserted between the major components of the clause. Additional nouns can be connected to the verb by means of prepositions; the resulting prepositional phrases have an adverbial function. For example: Él caxhiaĵeiveélu {naj marțv} ķa maglvķa {farh dal} {daņu casjivétsji} {vaxta ķa farfthe}, "He carried {without delay} the bag {for her} {from the car} {to the door}."
Occigotian is a null subject language, meaning that it permits and sometimes mandates the omission of an explicit subject. In Occigotian, the grammatical person of the subject is generally reflected by the inflection of the verb. Sometimes, though an explicit subject is not necessary to form a grammatically correct sentence, one may be stated in order to emphasize its importance. Some sentences, however, do not allow a subject at all and in some other cases an explicit subject would sound awkward or unnatural: "I'm going home" can be translated either as (Ïxqe vaxta rhajme) or as (Lî ïxqe vaxta rhajme), where (Lî) means "I". "It's raining" is (haxvarea ķa ujve) in European Occigotian, or (haxvarea ujvento) in South American Occigotian, neither of which occurs with an explicit subject. Man ohuķazan serevo? "what time is it?" (literally "what hours are they?"). In European Occigotian, only in exceptional circumstances would "I'm going home; I'm going to watch TV" be translated as (Lî haxvarehî hinvento vaxta merseden;Lî haxvarehî hinvento axhve TV) ver televisão. At least the second eu ("I") would normally be omitted, if not both. Meanwhile, in South American Occigotian, the subject pronoun is more likely to be repeated. As in other null subject language with a SVO word order, the subject is often postponed, mostly in existential sentences, in answers to partial questions and in contrast structures: Akxhiveni mutsji ractsji ahê! ("There are many mice here!") — Verb akxhiveni, subject ractsji, complement ahê indicating place. Manse man sereéu? Sereîu lî. ("Who was it? It was me.") — Verb sereéu, subject lî. Dal ńe eareéu ķa kakme, maj eareu-ņu lî. (European Occigotian) or ...maj lî eareîu (Brazilian Occigotian) ("She didn't eat the cake, but I did.") — Subject Dal, negation ńe, verb eareéu, object ķa kakme; the complement divides itself into: adversative conjunction maj, verb eareu, object -ņu, subject lî.
Occigotian declarative sentences, as in many languages, are the least marked ones. Imperative sentences use the imperative mood for the second person. For other grammatical persons and for every negative imperative sentence, the subjunctive is used. Yes/no questions have the same structure as declarative sentences, and are marked only by a different tonal pattern (mostly a raised tone near the end of the sentence), represented by a question mark in writing. Wh-questions often start with Manse ("who"), ņu man ("what"), mahík ("which"), mońat ("where"), ķamońat ("where... to"), mansajgn ("when"), mac-là ("why"), etc. The interrogative pronouns manse, ņu man and mahík can be preceded by any preposition, but in this case ņu man will usually be reduced to man. Frequently in oral language, and occasionally in writing, these words are followed by the interrogative device sereét que (literally, "is [it] that"; compare French est-ce que in wh-questions). Wh-questions sometimes occur without wh-movement, that is, wh-words can remain in situ. In this case, ņu man and mac-lat are replaced by their stressed counterparts ņu man and mac-lat (South American Occigotian) or maclat (European Occigotian). For example: Ņu man/Man eareéu man dal akereéu? or Ņu man/man akereéu dal? "What did she do?" Dal akereéu ņu man? "What did she do?" or, if emphatic, "Dal akereéu ņu man?" Mac La? (South American Occigotian) / Maclá? (European Occigotian) "Ņu man?" En man dej akereéu man thûzi ajfekpeveéu? "On what day did that happen?" Thôman daj en man ajfekpeveéu? "On what day did that happen?" In South American Occigotian, the phrase (akereéu man) is more often omitted.
Ńe ("no") is the natural negative answer to yes/no questions. As in Latin, positive answers are usually made with the inflected verb of the question in the appropriate person and number. Occigotian is one of the few Romance languages keeping this Latin peculiarity. The adverbs xhâ ("already"), hacinka ("yet"), and ķuțumesc ("too", "also") are used when one of them appears in the question. Q: Tu gasjfaretuun daņu filme? A: gasjfareîu. / Ńe. Q: "Did you like the movie?" A: "Yes.", literally, "I liked." / "No." Q: Lî ńe havivreîu deińareîu heńat úm sjapfe? A: havivretuun! Q: "Didn't I leave a key here?" A: "Yes, you did!", literally, "[You] did." Q: Xhâ liaeretuun eșņu líabrio? A: Xhâ. / Iatze ńe. Q: "Have you already read this book?" A: "Yes", literally, "Already." / "Not yet." The word rhe("yes") may be used for a positive answer, but, if used alone, it may in certain cases sound unnatural or impolite. In South American Occigotian, rhe can be used after the verb for emphasis. In North American Occigotian, emphasis in answers is added with the duplication of the verb. In all versions of Occigotian, emphasis can also result from syntactical processes that are not restricted to answers, such as the addition of adverbs like moôt ("much") or moôtișimalle ("very much"). It is also acceptable, though sometimes formal, to use yes before the verb of the question, separated by a pause or, in writing, a comma. The use of rhe before the verb does not add emphasis, and may on the contrary be less assertive. Q: Gasjfaretuu țeņu filme? A: Gasjfareîu, rhe! Q: "Did you like the movie?" A:"Yes, I did!" Q: Gasjfaretuun țeņu filme? A: Gasjafareîu, gasjfareîu! Q: "Did you like the movie?" A:"I did, I did!" Q: Havivreél combosĵos ha eșķa çóre? A: Havivreél, havivreél! Q: "Are there any trains at this time?" A:"Yes, there are!" Q: Él gasjfareélu țeņu filme? A: Rhe, gasjfareélu... Q:"Did he like the movie?" A: "He did, yes..."
Occigotian has definite and indefinite articles, with different forms according to the gender and number of the noun to which they refer: singular plural meaning masculine feminine masculine feminine definite article ņu, Él ķa, Dal ņus, Éls dals the indefinite article úm úma úms úmas a, an; some The noun after the indefinite article may be elided, in which case the article is equivalent to English "one" (if singular) or "some" (if plural): uhanveî úm ķuțumesc ("I want one too"), uhanveî úms ķuțumesc ("I want some too").
Nouns are classified into two grammatical genders ("masculine" and "feminine") and are inflected for grammatical number (singular or plural). Adjectives and determiners (articles, demonstratives, possessives, and quantifiers) must be inflected to agree with the noun in gender and number. Many nouns can take diminutive or augmentative suffixes to express size, endearment, or deprecation. Occigotian does not inflect nouns to indicate their grammatical function or case, relying instead on the use of prepositions (simple and phrasal), on pleonastic objects, or on the context or word order. Personal pronouns, on the other hand, still maintain some vestiges of declension from the ancestor language, Latin.
[Full Part on comments]

I made the alphabet just so I can write in peace without worrying about privacy invasions, but I have a story where there's like no way they'd speak English so I started writing a whole language for it (I intend to, once I have the language down, write two versions: One in the language the characters speak, and one translated to English). I have a small notebook with some word ideas and their meaning(s) next to it as well as the version of it in the English language. The language currently lacks a name but that isn't one of my questions, lol.
So, what's a good way to figure out what words you still need? I'm just going as I think of things, but I could also try doing it as I hear a word I don't have already have, or since I'm learning another language and I'm still just starting then I could make words as I see them in that. I also considered making several basic words and then making some as the need arises, but if I can make puns or give something a double-meaning then I want it to be natural rather than crafting a word specifically for it (nothing wrong with that I just don't want to do that.)
I also want to know how you figure out whether or not to give a word multiple meanings. I'm going by vibes if that makes sense (minus one that I thought would just be really funny and wouldn't likely be confusing), though some guidelines would help.
Then there's specific things....animals and plants reminded me that there's...a *lot* to list. I was just going to skip those for now since it's so many to list and use another language as a basis but as I say in my next point, I want it to be mine; not just make bonus words for another language.
My most urgent question, what's the best way to document your language? Notebooks will fill but none of my devices will let me write using my alphabet (there's enough characters so I doubt I will have room to make a keyboard, plus none of the apps to draw letters have really worked). I've seen google docs and similar things suggested so far but I'm still gonna end up messy about it plus the issue of lexicon; it doesn't even resemble the Latin alphabet minus one or two of them. I do have English translations of it so I guess that isn't a major issue but I'd still like, if possible, to have something that works for that (if I don't end up with it I'll just use a doc and make sure I memorize the symbols).
Final question for now, grammar. How do I figure out what grammar rules I should give it? I know some languages have different grammar rules. According to Duolingo Japanese puts verbs last, and some languages have specific orders for types of adjectives. I'm using English as a basis for that sorta thing but I'd like my language to be *mine,* not English+
​
Otherwise I think I got it! It's quite fun so far and I've spent like 4-5 hours straight on it when I thought it was only ~15 minutes. I never expected it to be so interesting and engaging to make a whole language from mostly scratch :)
I searched for my questions on this subreddit already but I couldn't find much (except for the grammar one but I haven't seen very...conclusive answers), so apologies if I missed something asked frequently (these are basic questions so I imagine they are and I just got unlucky in searching).

Orthography and Phonolgy: In / are written IPA symbols, in ( and ) are written aproximate english pronouncinations. Aa /ä/ (~ah) Ee /ɛ/ (~a) Ii /i/ (~ee) Bb /b/ (-) Rr / (rolled r, unrolled acceptable) Kk /k/ (k) Hh /h/ or /x/ (h) Mm /m/ (m)
Abrahmak has a (C)(C)V(C)(C) (where "C" are consonants, which are optional im a syllable, and "V" is a vowel) It has a SVO word order (subject-verb-object, like in english) No charachters can be written double, in and between syllables ("amma" has a prohibited conection of two "m" 's, altough they are spread between syllables) when this sittuation occurs due to grammar, two same letters are reduced to one, with an ' after.
Nouns have only one grammatical inflection (change in meaning): Plurals, which are formed by reapiting the last syllable of a noun (Abar > Abarar - bread > breads)
Adjectives are formed from connecting "ba" and nouns in sigular form (Abar > Ba'bar - bread > bread-ish/bread-like)
Verbs too have only one grammatical conjugation (change in meaning): Time (Tense). For past we add an "e" preffix to a verb (seh > eseh - to be > was), for present it's the "a" suffix (seh > seha) and for future it' the "i" suffix (seh > sehi)
Adverbs are formed from adjectives and "mer" at the end (Ba'bar > Ba'barmer - bread-like > Bread-ly/done in a bread manner)
Pronouns are: A - I Ka - you (singular) Ra - They (3rd person pronoun)
Plurals are formed with "i" suffix (A > Ai - I > We) Objects are formed with "m" suffix (A > Am, I > me) Possesives are formed with "b" suffix (A > Ab, I > my)
If you have any questions, complains, sugestions, etc. please write them in the commemts
As for now, the language doesnt have much words. When the grammar get's accepted, there will be a post collecting ideas for words. Only ones that are here are : seh - to be, maie - guide/leader, Abar - bread, Abrah - love.

Hi all! As the title of this post says, I've just begun my journey into the Cosmere and I wanted to share my thoughts here. I usually write my thoughts about a book I've finished on Reddit and I'm planning on getting through the entirety of Cosmere, so you might see quite a lot of lengthy posts from me in the near future (warning, they tend to get very lengthy at times). I've only read 2 Cosmere books so far (the second one being The Final Empire, which I'm planning to make a post about very soon) and from what I saw I already have some uncommon opinions on them, so I'm looking forward to discussing it with y'all!
So my journey started with Elantris. I know that some people say it's one of Brandon's weakest books cause he wasn't as experienced back then and not a lot of people really recommend it as a starting point (Brandon himself included I believe) but I still decided to start with it just because I always do publication order. And honestly I didn't find it that bad. It wasn't the best book I've ever read, far from it, but it wasn't bad, it was an okay, interesting and fun book that I very much enjoyed reading.
I've heard a lot of things about Cosmere going into this as it's extremely popular among fantasy readers and I was very looking forward to finally delving into it myself. The things I heard about the most were Brandon's accessible writing style and his interesting magic systems. After reading Elantris, I must say I agree with both of these things. The book was very easy to read, the writing style is super easy to get into yet it didn't feel weak at all. It was maybe a bit too dialogue heavy for my liking, I don't like overly descriptive authors but I felt that Brandon could've taken a bit more time to describe things. I mean he was describing actions and the plot quite a bit but I felt the book was a bit lacking when it comes to describing appearances, environments and things like that. But it was his first published book so I get that he wasn't quite skilled at that yet. As for the magic system, it didn't get much screen time, since it was "lost" for most of the book and only got rediscovered at the end, but I very much enjoyed the mystery it was shrouded in, the way Raoden learnt more and more about it as the book went on and the reveal that made it all click together at the very end. But more on that later.
The main POV characters here: Raoden, Sarene and Hrathen, were all fun to read and I enjoyed most of the chapters from each of them. Sarene's chapters probably had the worst pacing, especially in the second act as there wasn't as much happening in them and they tended to be quite a bit longer than the other two characters' chapters. The parts with her visiting Kiin and spending time with his family, plotting with the other nobles and visiting various balls felt a little slow and these chapters easily could've been trimmed a bit I think. But ever since she starts visiting Elantris and bringing food there, the book really gets going with the plot escalating more and more with each chapter until we reach quite a cool climax in my opinion, so I really enjoyed that. I really liked her developing relationship towards Raoden, which felt pretty natural and not rushed, so I was very pleased with that.
With Raoden I really enjoyed his story especially in the first part, exploring Elantris together with Galladan, slowly building up his own gang and eventually uniting all the gangs together and remaking Elantris into a functional civilisation. I think Brandon executed this extremely well, the pacing of it was spot on, none of it felt rushed, we had some progress in pretty much every single Raoden chapter and the transformation from a ruined city full of savages into a functional society felt very much earned and it was satisfying to slowly see it happen. As for the magic system, I am a huge fun of alphabets and geometry, so having a magic system based on that was right up my alley! I think the whole mystery of Elantris was handled really well, it kept me interested throughout the whole book and it kept giving me little hints and revelations that lead to more questions, which is something that I enjoy in mystery stories. One thing I found a little weird was the lake, I think it was a bit pointless in the end, but who knows, maybe I'm yet to learn about what that was.
Hrathen was a very interesting character to read. His chapters were quite short, especially in contrast to Sarene's chapters, but I still really enjoyed them. It was amuzing to read about a character who manipulates people and is willing to do quite bad things sometimes in the name of his religion. He wasn't fanatical like Dilaf though, he was being rational about it, he was trying to justify his actions to himself above all and it was fascinating to read about his thoughts throughout this whole process. Similarly to Elantris' transformation, Hrathen's transformation from a Gyorn who follows the orders of his ruler to a person who follows his personal beliefs first and stands up against those who he disagrees with, again felt earned and satisfying. I guess "not rushed and earned transformations" are a bit of a theme in this book :D. I also loved all the twists along his journey, where I first thought that he committed suicide by poisoning himself, then I thought he was affected by Shaod, then it turned out he faked it using the aforementioned poison, then he used the same method to put Sarene into Elantris, winning the kingdom of Teod in the process. I didn't expect most of these twists and I was really enjoying how Hrathen was constantly subverting my expectations in this way.
As mentioned before, I really enjoyed the slow escalation at the end, culminating in the final battle. The book was very very captivating from the moment the King's cult is discovered until the very end. Dilaf's twist especially was very unexpected and escalated the whole thing quite unexpectedly which resulted in a very thrilling ending to the book which was super fun to read. The reveal about why Elantris became the way it was was also very interesting, it made sense and I didn't feel like anything was left unexplained, so I was very happy with that. I do find it a little weird that the magic system is linked to geography in this way, but ey, it's Brandon's world, if that's the rule he sets up and the story follows it, I can't complain. Though I am curious whether the earthquake that caused the chasm was natural or someone did it delibately, maybe that's something we could explore in the sequel? We'll see. I also wasn't a huge fan of Dilaf and his priests' abilities, it just felt too abrupt to suddenly have a brand new magic system revealed that our heroes have to fight against. Sure it's implied that this system is related to the Elantris one, but it still felt a little abrupt for my liking, though that's just my personal preference. One other thing I didn't like was the teleportation to Teod at the end, I just didn't find it really necessary, but I guess it was a way to showcase the magic a little bit more. The fighting itself was cool, the action was well written (I feel like this is the strongest point of Brandon's accessible writing style) and all the plot points got wrapped up very nicely.
Overall, despite this being Brandon's first published book and a lot of people (at least as far as I've seen) ranking it pretty low in terms of Cosmere, I really enjoyed this book. Like I said, it wasn't anything super amazing, but it was good, interesting, enjoyable, satisfying and a bunch of other adjectives. Most importantly it made me excited for my Cosmere journey, because I thought "if people rank this book low and I'm enjoying it, then the better books must be amazing!". I was thinking of giving this book some sort of rating and I couldn't decide whether to give it X/10 points or X/5 stars or what kind of rating should I use. In the end I think I'm gonna be giving these books "tiers" and if I were to put Elantris on a tier list, I'd probably put it in A-tier. Not totally amazing, but not bad and quite enjoyable, certainly above average. I'm not sure it makes too much sense to put the book in a tierlist on its own, cause there's nothing to compare it against, but I guess we'll see what happens once other books join the list. As I've said before though, I've already read The Final Empire too, so that is one thing I can compare Elantris against and, well, you'll see how that comparison goes in my next post.
For those that bothered to read this far, first of all thank you and please let me know your thoughts on this book, I can't wait to discuss this universe with everyone here, though I'm only limited to a couple of books thus far. And so my journey begins...

==BACKGROUND==

Valtamic, Ѣлıѣмхор /ˈæʎæmxɔ [ˈæˑʎɛm̥ˌχɔ̞ɾ̥] natively, is a naturalistic Italic language spoken in the Baltic, in the Republic of Valtamia. Itˈs primarily written in the Cyrillic Script, drawing from the early Cyrillic script specifically, yet it does have a romanization system drawing from Polish orthography.
===ETYMOLOGY OF VALTAMIC===
"Valtamic" comes from Late Latin vāltamicus ("Valtamic"), from Proto-Valtamic \βältämu, from *\βältä*** ("strange") + \ämu* ("man, human"), a theorized calque of a Finnic exonym.
It is unrelated to native Valtamic Ѣлıѣмхор (Äljämhor), the native name of the language, which comes from Proto-Valtamic \βärjämu, from *\βäre*** ("foreign") + \ämu* ("man, human"), + Modern Valtamic -кар (country-forming suffix), back-formed from Алфакар ("Germany"). It's also a theorized calque of another Finnic exonym.

==PHONOLOGY & ORTHOGRAPHY==

Consonants	Labial	Alveolar	Retroflex	Palatal	Dorsal
Nasal	/m/ ⟨м⟩	/n/ ⟨н⟩		/ɲ/ ⟨н⟩ ⟨њ⟩	(/ŋ/)
Plosive (Voiceless)	/p/ ⟨п⟩	/t/ ⟨т⟩			/k/ ⟨к⟩
Plosive (Voiced)	/b/ ⟨б⟩	/d/ ⟨д⟩			/g/ ⟨г⟩
Fricative (Voiceless)	/f/ ⟨ф⟩	(/θ/) ǀ /s/ ⟨с⟩	/ʂ/ ⟨ш⟩	/ɕ/ ⟨з⟩	/х/ ⟨х⟩ ǀ /ɦ/ ⟨һ⟩
Fricative (Voiced)	/v/ ⟨в⟩	(/z/) ⟨з⟩	/ʐ/ ⟨ж⟩
Affricate (Voiceless)		/t͡s/ ⟨ц⟩	/t͡ʂ/ ⟨ч⟩
Affricate (Voiced)		(/d͡z/) ⟨дз⟩	(/d͡ʐ/) ⟨дж⟩ ⟨ж⟩
Trill/Tap		/r/ ⟨р⟩
Lateral		/l/ ⟨л⟩		/ʎ/ ⟨л⟩ ⟨љ⟩
Approximant					/w/ ⟨ў⟩

• /d g ʐ/ are nonnative phonemes that gained phonemic status due to Russo-Finnic loans.
• /m n ɲ r l ʎ/ are devoiced [m̥ n̥ ɲ̊ r̥ l̥ ʎ̥] syllable-finally.
• /t d l/ are dental [t̪ d̪ l̪] while /n/ is true alveolar [n].
• /s/ is apical/retracted [s̺~s̠] while /t͡s/ is, like /t/, dental/laminal [t̪͡s̪~t̻͡s̻]. This gives rise to an apical/laminal distinction [s̺] [s̻] in unstressed syllables.
• /ŋ/ is an allophone of /n/ before /k g/ in nonnative words. The sequences //nk ng// do not appear natively.
• /f v/ are more accurately approximants [ʋ̊ ʋ].
• /θ/ only appears in /θr/ ⟨тр⟩.
• /z/ appears in modern loanwords but is, in practice, in free variation with /ɕ/. This also means /d͡z/ is in free variation with /d͡ʑ/.
• the pronunciation of /z/ tends to vary by speaker, ranging from [z̪] to [z̠] to even [ʑ].
• /x/ is pronounced [χ] near back vowels and [x̟] near front vowels.
• /t͡ʂ/ is in free variation with /t͡ɕ/.
• people who pronounce ⟨з⟩ as /z/ (instead of /ɕ/) may also pronounce /ʂ t͡ʂ ʐ d͡ʐ/ as /ʃ t͡ʃ ʒ d͡ʒ/.
• /r/ is pronounced as a tap [ɾ].
• /l/ is pronounced [ɫ] near back vowels
• /w/ is pronounced [ɥ] near front vowels.
• /ɲ ʎ/ are written in to waysː

1. if preceding a vowel, they're written as ⟨н л⟩ with an iotated vowel ⟨ıѣ я є ıэ ё ӥ ю юу ıъ ıь⟩.
2. otherwise they're written as ⟨њ љ⟩.

​

Vowels:	Front	Central	Back
Close	/i/ ⟨и⟩ ǀ /y/ ⟨ъı⟩	/ɨ/ ⟨ьı⟩	/ɯ/ ⟨у⟩ ǀ /u/ ⟨оу⟩
Mid	/e/ ⟨е⟩		/ɤ/ ⟨э⟩ ǀ /o/ ⟨о⟩
Open	/æ/ ⟨ѣ⟩		/ɑ/ ⟨а⟩ ǀ (/ɔ/) ⟨о⟩

• More accurately, the vowels come in pairs based on stress:

[Stressed] Vowels:	Front	Central	Back
Close	[iˑ] ⟨и⟩ ǀ [yˑ] ⟨ъı⟩	[ɨˑ] ⟨ьı⟩	[ɯˑ] ⟨у⟩ ǀ [uˑ] ⟨оу⟩
Mid	[e̞ˑ] ⟨е⟩		[ɤ̞ˑ] ⟨э⟩ ǀ [o̞ˑ] ⟨о⟩
Near-Open	[æˑ] ⟨ѣ⟩		[ɑ̝ˑ] ⟨а⟩

• [æˑ] [ɑ̝ˑ] may alternatively be pronounced as true open [æ̞ˑ] [ɑˑ]
• [ɤˑ] may be alternatively pronounced as front [ø̞ˑ], even though it messes with the harmony of inflectional endings.

[Unstressed] Vowels:	Front	Central	Back
Near-Close	[ɪ] ⟨и⟩ ǀ [ʏ] ⟨ъı⟩	[ᵻ] ⟨ьı⟩	[ω] ⟨у⟩ ǀ [ʊ] ⟨оу⟩
Open-Mid	[ɛ] ⟨е⟩		[ɜ] ⟨э⟩ ǀ [ɔ] ⟨о⟩
Open-Mid Mk.2	[ɛ] ⟨ѣ⟩		[ʌ] ⟨а⟩ ǀ ([ɔ̞]) ⟨о⟩

• In the case of true open [æ̞ˑ] [ɑˑ], [ɛ] [ʌ] are alternatively [ɛ̞] [ʌ̞].
• [ɜ] can alternatively be central [ə], merged with [ʌ], or in the case of stressed [ø̞ˑ], front [œ]
• [ᵻ] may also alternatively be central [ə].
• [ɔ̞] only exists due to vowel harmony and isn't recognized as phonetic in it's own right. Its pronunciation can range from [ɒ] to [ɔ].

===IOTATED VOWELS (+ /wɯ/)===

Cyrillic	Romanization	IPA
Я я	Ja ja	/jɑ/
Є є	Je je	/je/
Ӥ ӥ	Ji ji	/ji/
Ё ё	Jo jo	/jo/ ǀ /jɔ/
Ӱ ӱ	Uu uu	/wɯ/
Ю ю	Ju ju	/jɯ/ ǀ /ju/
Юу юу	Jou jou	/ju/
ІЪ ıъ	Jy jy	/jy/
ІЬ ıь	Jü jü	/jɨ/
ІѢ ıѣ	Jä jä	/jæ/
ІЭ ıэ	Jë jë	/jɤ/

===COGNATE CHART===

Proto-Italic	(Classical) Latin	Umbrian	Valtamic
*duō	DVO [ˈduɔ]	𐌕𐌖𐌚 (tuf)	тоу [ˈtuː]
*kʷenkʷe	QVINQVE [ˈkʷiːŋkʷɛ]	𐌐𐌖𐌌𐌐𐌄 (pumpe)	пѣмѣ [ˈpæˑmɛ]
*θēmanā	FEMINA [ˈfeːmɪnä]	⸺	семэн [ˈse̞ˑmɜn̥]
*wiros	VIR [u̯ɪr]	𐌖𐌉𐌓𐌏 (uiro)	ъıлур [ˈyˑlωɾ̥]
*agros	AGER [ˈäɡɛr]	𐌀𐌂𐌄𐌓 (ager)	клор [ˈkʟo̞ˑɾ̥]
*salawos	SALVVS [ˈsäɫu̯ʊs]	𐌔𐌀𐌋𐌖𐌏𐌔 (saluos)	ралор [ˈɾɑ̝ˑɫɔ̞ɾ̥]
*waðom	VADVM [ˈu̯ädʊ̃ˑ]	⸺	вам [ˈʋɑ̝ˑm̥]

==Grammar==

Valtamic exhibits simple vowel-height harmony:

• Low: ⟨ѣ⟩ ⟨а⟩ (⟨о⟩)
• Middle: ⟨е⟩ ⟨э⟩ ⟨о⟩
• High: ⟨и⟩ ⟨ъı⟩ ⟨ьı⟩ ⟨у⟩ ⟨оу⟩

===NOUNS & ADJECTIVES===
Nouns decline for 2 numbers and 12 cases. Grammatical gender does exist but no longer serves a grammatical role, except for pronoun agreement (even then it is no longer observed in an increasing amount of speakers)
Adjectives decline just like nouns, but not for number.
​
====Type I Paradigm====
Corresponds with the Proto-Italic o-stem & Latin 2nd declension. True-type I nouns (those being mono-syllabic none-affixes & none-generalized nouns) exhibit all 3 levels of harmony throughout the paradigm. The Chart is shown with Клор (masc, "Land, Territory"), ultimately from Proto-Italic *agros.

Type I paradigm (Dynamic-Harmony)	Singular	Plural
Nominative	Клор	Клон
Accusative	Клом	Клон
Genitive	Клош	Клом
Dative	Клоуљ	Клол
Lative	Клоуњ	Клоунюљ
Locative	Клѣљ	Клѣлıѣљ
Separative	Клот	Клодэл
Essive	Клонэ	Клоно
Translative	Клоц	Клоцэ
Privative	Клодек	Клодок
Comitative	Клонек	Клонок
Instrumental	Клоной	Клономи

​
====Type II Paradigm====
Corresponds with the Proto-Italic ā-stem & u-stem and Latin 1st & 4th declensions. Type II nouns can also be declined with the regular paradigm. The Chart is shown with Цуцу (masc, "a Prussian"), ultimately from Proto-Germanic \þeudō*.

Type II paradigm (High-Harmony)	Singular	Plural
Nominative	Цуцу	Цуцур
Accusative	Цуцум	Цуцун
Genitive	Цуцур	Цуцузум
Dative	Цуцуљ	Цуцул
Lative	Цуцуњ	Цуцунюљ
Locative	Цуцуљ	Цуцулюљ
Separative	Цуцут	Цуцудул
Essive	Цуцуну	Цуцуноу
Translative	Цуцуц	Цуцуцу
Privative	Цуцудик	Цуцудоук
Comitative	Цуцуник	Цуцуноук
Instrumental	Цуцую*	Цуцуӥми

\⟨ю⟩ here is pronounced as /jɯ*/
​
====Type III Paradigm====
Corresponds with the Proto-Italic consonant-stems & i-stem and Latin 3rd declension. Nouns that used to exhibit stem mutations in proto-Italic still do in Valtamic. Some cases also feature differing declensions that vary by region. The Chart is shown with Нъıр (fem, "thing, stuff"), ultimately from Proto-Italic \sniks*.

Type III paradigm (High-Harmony)	Singular	Plural
Nominative	Нъıр	Нъıўир
Accusative	Нъıӱм	Нъıўин
Genitive	Нъıўир	Нъıўоум
Dative	Нъıўиљ	Нъıӱһ ǀ Нъıӱл
Lative	Нъıўъıњ	Нъıўъıнюл
Locative	Нъıўъı ǀ Нъıўъıљ	Нъıўъıлюљ
Separative	Нъıӱт	Нъıӱдул
Essive	Нъıӱ ǀ Нъıўну	Нъıӱноу ǀ Нъıўноу
Translative	Нъıўц	Нъıўцу
Privative	Нъıўдик	Нъıўдоук
Comitative	Нъıўник	Нъıўноук
Instrumental	Нъıўоум	Нъıӱми ǀ Нъıўоуми

​
====Regular Paradigm====
A regularized paradigm for non-generalized loanwords (and sometimes type II nouns). The Chart is shown with all 3 vowel heights.

Regular Paradigm	Singular	Plural
Nominative	-	-ир, -ер, -ѣр
Accusative	-ум, -эм, -ам	-ун, -эн, -ан
Genitive	-ир, -ер, -ѣр	-оум, -ом, -ом
Dative	-иљ, -ељ, -ѣљ	-уљ, -эљ, -аљ
Lative	-уњ, -эњ, -ањ	-уњуљ, -эњэљ, -ањаљ
Locative	-уљ, -эљ, -аљ	-уљуљ, -эљэљ, -аљаљ
Separative	-ут, -эт, -ат	-удуљ, -эдэљ, -адаљ
Essive	-ну, -нэ, -на	-нуноу, -нэно, -нано
Translative	-ц	-цу, -цэ, -ца
Privative	-дик, -дек, -дѣк	-доук, -док, -док
Comitative	-ник, -нек, -нѣк	-ноук, -нок, -нок
Instrumental	-ю, -ё, -ё*	-ӥми, -єме, -ıѣмѣ

\⟨ю⟩ here is pronounced as /ju*/
​
===VERBS===
Weirdest thing about Valtamic is that all the Proto-Italic conjugations merged into a single paradigm, shown with Селэлё (stem селэљ-, "to perform oral sex"), ultimately from Proto-Italic \θēlājō*.
====Indicative Paradigms====

ACTIVE VOICE paradigm	Past	Present	Future
1.sg	Селэлєм	Селэлё	Селэлємбэн
2.sg	Селэлєр	Селэлıэр	Селэлєрбэн
3.sg	Селэлєт	Селэлıэс	Селэлєтэбэн
1.pl	Селэлємер	Селэлıэмэр	Селэлєсэбэн
2.pl	Селэлєсер	Селэлıэсэр	Селэлєсэбэн
3.pl	Селэлєнт	Селэлıэнс	Селэлєсэбэн

​

ACTIVE IMPERATIVE paradigm	Present
sg	Селэлє ǀ Селэлєљ
pl	Селэлєлєц

​

PASSIVE VOICE paradigm	Past	Present	Future
1.sg	Селэлєл	Селэлёл	Селэлєблэн
2.sg	Селэлєз	Селэлıэсэл	Селэлєзбэн
3.sg	Селэлєсел	Селэлıэсэл	Селэлєсэбэн
1.pl	Селэлємел	Селэлıэмэл	Селэлєрмењ
2.pl	Селэлємењ	Селэлıэнсэл	Селэлєрмењ
3.pl	Селэлєнсел	Селэлıэнсэл	Селэлєрмењ

​

PASSIVE IMPERATIVE paradigm	Present
sg	Селэлєлєз
pl	Селэлєлємењ

​
====Subjunctive Paradigms====

ACTIVE VOICE paradigm	Past	Present
1.sg	Селэлёром	Селэлём
2.sg	Селэлєрер	Селэлıэс
3.sg	Селэлєрет	Селэлıэт
pl	Селэлıэрэнт	Селэлıэмэт

​

PASSIVE VOICE paradigm	Past	Present
1.sg	Селэлёрол	Селэлёмол
2.sg	Селэлєрез	Селэлıэш
3.sg	Селэлєресел	Селэлıэрэл
pl	Селэлıэрэнсэл	Селэлёнсэр

​
====Participles====

PARTICIPLES
Present	Селэлєнєн
Past	Селэлєте

​
====To be====
The verb Рам ("to be") is suppletive irregular in the active voice, regular in the passive, and dynamic (i.e has a dynamic stem but regular endings) in the past passive specifically.

1. The infinitive, active present, past, and imperative forms are from native Proto-Italic \som*.
2. The active future is from Proto-Baltic \kļūti*, cognate with Proto-Slavic \kľuti*.
3. The Passive stems are from late Proto-Balto-Salvic \wártīˀtei*.
4. The Subjunctive stem is a regularization of the infinitive.

=====Indicative Paradigms=====

ACTIVE VOICE paradigm	Past	Present	Future
1.sg	Уљ	Ѣз	Хруш
2.sg	Ут	Ѣр	Хруш
3.sg	Ут	Ѣц	Хрур
1.pl	Умур	Ѣрѣм	Хрушум
2.pl	Утлир	Ѣтлѣр	Хрушур
3.pl	Улс	Рѣнс	Хрубун

​

ACTIVE IMPERATIVE paradigm	Present
sg	Ѣр
pl	Ѣц

​

PASSIVE VOICE paradigm	Past	Present	Future
1.sg	Уљил	Ултил	Ултиблун
2.sg	Утлиз	Ултисул	Ултизбун
3.sg	Утисил	Ултисул	Ултисубун
1.pl	Умил	Ултимул	Ултирмињ
2.pl	Утлимињ	Ултинсул	Ултирмињ
3.pl	Улсинсил	Ултинсул	Ултирмињ

​

PASSIVE IMPERATIVE paradigm	Present
sg	Ултилӥз
pl	Ултилӥмињ

=====Subjunctive Paradigms=====

ACTIVE VOICE paradigm	Past	Present
1.sg	Рамором	Рамом
2.sg	Рамѣрѣр	Рамас
3.sg	Рамѣрѣм	Рамам
pl	Рамарант	Рамамат

​

PASSIVE VOICE paradigm	Past	Present
1.sg	Раморол	Рамомол
2.sg	Рамарѣз	Рамаш
3.sg	Рамѣрѣсѣл	Рамарал
pl	Рамарансал	Рамонсар

​

==VOCABULARY==

Valtamic Vocabulary can be split into 2:

1. Native, Italic Vocabulary
2. Borrowed Vocabulary

The 2nd can be further split into:

1. Proto-Finnic loanwords (Proto-Valtamic)
2. Proto-Slavic Loanwords (Proto-Valtamic)
3. Proto-Baltic Loanwords (Proto-Valtamic)
4. Proto-Germanic/Old-Norse Loanwords (Proto-Valtamic)
5. Very late Proto-Balto-Slavic loanwords (Proto-Valtamic)
6. Low German Loanwords (Valtamic, Teutonic Period)
7. Polish Loanwords (Valtamic, Commonwealth period)
8. Lithuanian Loanwords (Valtamic, Commonwealth Period)
9. Swedish Lutheran Loanwords (Valtamic, Swedish Period)
10. Russian Loanwords (Valtamic, Russo-Soviet Period)
11. Latin Loanwords (Valtamic, Teutonic Period -> Post-Independence)
12. Modern Loanwords (Valtamic, Modern Period)

Most Proto-Valtamic -> Commonwealth Valtiamic Loans generalize to one of the 3 paradigms, Swedish -> Modern Loans take regular inflection.
===PRONOUNS===
Valtamic Pronouns are a Italo-Finno-Slavic mess, due to the acquisition of the modern Valtamic case system from a plethora of languages that donated their pronouns aswell. I guess a fun challenge is to try to figure out the origins of them!

1st Person Pronouns	Singular	Plural
Nominative	Ѣк	Ноур
Accusative	Мѣ	Ноур ǀ Һѣ ǀ Вѣ
Genitive	Мѣм	Насам
Dative	Мѣљ	Нэм
Lative	Мьıлуњ	Мѣлѣњ
Locative	Мьıнуљ	Мѣл
Separative	Мѣт	Нѣљ
Privative	Мьıнут	Мѣц
Comitative	Мьıљун	Мѣњѣх
Reflexive/Disjunctive	Мѣрѣһ	Нѣрѣһ

​

2nd Person Pronouns	Singular	Plural
Nominative	Оур	Һэ
Accusative	Оур ǀ Цѣн	Һэ ǀ Цѣт
Genitive	Ѣсѣм	Һэљэм
Dative	Һэм	Һэр
Lative	Цъıньıњ	Цѣљѣњ
Locative	Цъıньıљ	Цѣљ
Separative	Оуљ	Цѣзѣ
Privative	Цъıньıт	Цѣц
Comitative	Цъıньıх	Цѣњѣх
Reflexive/Disjunctive	Ѣрѣһ	Һэшл ǀ Һэреһ

​

3rd Person Pronouns	Masculine	Neuter	Feminine	Plural
Nominative	ЪІ	Ѣ	О	И
Accusative	Нъı	Нѣ	Но	Ни
Genitive	Љѣк	Љѣк	Љѣљ	ЪІх
Dative/Instrumental	ЪІм	ЪІм	Ѣљ	Им
Lative	Нъıм	Нъıм	Нѣљ	Нѣх
Locative	Ѣнѣл	Ѣнѣл	Ѣнѣл	Ил
Separative	Ѣнѣс	Ѣнѣс	Ѣнѣс	Ис
Privative	Ѣнѣсц	Ѣнѣсц	Ѣнѣсц	Иц
Comitative	Ѣнѣх	Ѣнѣх	Ѣнѣх	Их
Reflexive/Disjunctive	Љѣһ	Љѣһ	Љѣһ	ЪІриһ

​
===DERIVATIONAL SUFFIXES===
As of late I've developed 12 derivational suffixes for Valtamic, shown here with middle harmony:
1- ⟨-елэр⟩ dimunitive suffix (Type I)

• From Proto-Valtamic \älår, from Proto-Italic *\-elos***. Cognate with Latin -ulus.

2- ⟨-о⟩ verbal infinitve suffix

• From Proto-Valtamic \-u, a merger of proto-Italic *\-āō**, *\-ēō**, and *\-eō***. Cognate with Latin -ō and -eō.

3- ⟨-хор⟩ noun -> adjectival suffix (Type I)

• From Proto-Valtamic \-kxår, from Proto-Italic *\-kos***. Cognate with Latin -cus.

4- ⟨-ељ⟩ verb -> abstract nomial suffix (Type III)

• From Proto-Valtamic \-ɨľ(ä)*, loaned from Proto-Slavic \-ьje*.

5- ⟨-цэр⟩ adjective -> nomial suffix (Type III)

• From Proto-Valtamic \-tsa(të)r, from Proto-Italic *\-tāts***. Cognate with Latin -tās.

6- ⟨-тло⟩ verb -> concrete nomial (Type III)

• From a merger of Proto-Valtamic \-tľo* and \-tlo, from Proto-Italic *\-tjō*** and (by metathesis) \-tōr* respectively. Cognate with Latin -tiō and -tor.

7- ⟨-эр⟩ verb -> masculine agent suffix (Type I)

• From Proto-Valtamic \-ľër, from late Proto-Balto-Slavic *\-āˀjas**. Related to Latvian -ājs & Lithuanian-ojas, and technically a doublet of previous *-о**.

8- ⟨-цер⟩ general feminine suffix, verb -> feminine agent suffix (Type III)

• From Proto-Valtamic \-tsixr, from Proto-Italic *\-trīks***. Cognate with Latin -trīx.

9- ⟨-цэм⟩ general neutegender-neutral suffix, verb -> neutegender-neutral agent suffix (Type III)

• From Proto-Valtamic \-tsåm, from Proto-Italic *\-trom***. Cognate with Latin -trum.

10- ⟨-онэр⟩ adverbial suffix

• From Proto-Valtamic \-onrår, from Proto-Italic *\-owonssos***. Cognate with Latin -ōsus.

11- ⟨-цэх⟩ ordinal number suffix

• Backformed from Фрэлцэх ("first"), Фацах ("second"), Тръıцух ("third"), and Пѣцах ("fourth"). Specifically from the Proto-Valtamic \-cakx, from earlier *\-cakxår**, part of their Proto-Valtamic forms, a fusion of Proto-Italic *\-tāts*** + \-kos*.

12- ⟨-фрэ⟩ adverbial number suffix

• Backformed from Рѣнһѣфра ("once"), Тѣлафра ("twice"), Тръıлоуфру ("thrice"), and Пѣцафра ("four times"). Specifically from the Proto-Valtamic \-uloɸrår* part of their Proto-Valtamic forms, a fusion of Proto-Italic \-elos* + \-plos*.

Þvo̊o̊lð /θʋɔːlð/ is the lingua franca of the moon O̊o̊t /ɔː/. The speakers, the Þvo̊o̊lðfelk /ˈθʋɔːlðfelk/ are a race of humanoid creatures with iron bones, large horns, four eyes, six digits on each limb, and a partiality to Extreme Metal music. Þvo̊o̊lð's orthography and spelling is actually only standardized in official use; in lay use, it is not standardized and many variations exist. As such, this post is about official Þvo̊o̊lð.

Phonology

Consonants	Labial	Dental	Alveolar	Palatal/Velar	Glottal
Nasal	/m/		/n/
Stop	/p/ /b/		/t/ /d/	/k/ /g/
Fricative	/f/	/θ/ <þ> /ð/ /ɦ̪͆/	/s/ /z/		/h/
Approximant	/ʋ/			/j/
Liquid			/ /l/

​

Vowels	Front	Back
Close	/i/ /iː/ /y/ /yː/	/uː/
Mid-Close	/e/ /eː/ /ø/ /øː/ <øø>	/o/ /oː/
Mid-Open		/ɔ/ /ɔː/
Open	/æ/ /æː/ <ææ>	/ɑ/ /ɑː/ /ɒ/ /ɒː/

Syllabic consonants - /l̩/ /n̩/ /r̩/
Diphthongs - /æi̯/ /øy̯/ <øů> /ɒu̯/
Runic Alphabet: a - ᚫ, å - ᚩ, æ - ᛅ, b - ᛒ, d - ᛞ, ð - ᚧ, f - ᚠ, g - ᚵ, h - ᚺ, i - ᛁ, j - ᛂ, k - ᚴ, l - ᛚ, m - ᛗ, n - ᛀ, o - ᛟ, o̊ - ᚬ, ø - ᚯ, p - ᛔ, r - ᚱ, s - ᛊ, t - ᛏ, þ - ᚦ, u - ᚢ, ů - ᚤ, v - ᚡ, v̊ - ᚹ, z - ᛦ
Allophony

• /h/ > [h ~ x ~ ɦ ~ χ]
• / > [r ~ ɹ ~ ɾ]
• /r̩/ > [r̩ ~ ɹ̩]
• /ʋ/ > [ʋ ~ v ~ w]
• /f/ > [f ~ ɸ ~ ʋ̥]
• /j/ > [j ~ ç]
• /ɦ̪͆/ > [ɦ̪͆ ~ h̪͆]
• /ɑ/, /ɑː/, /ɒ/, /ɒː/ > [ɑ ~ a], [ɑː ~ aː], [ɒ ~ ɶ], [ɒː ~ ɶː]

Sound Changes
Word Initial:

• /gj/ > [j]
• /kj/ > [ʂ ~ ɧ]

Word Final:

• /e/ > [ə]
• /t/ /d/ > [DELETED] / AFTER VOWEL

Other:

• /V/ > [V˞ ] / BEFORE /
• /STOP/ > [AFFRICATE] / AFTER /NASAL/

Grammar

• V2 word order, V first in irrealis
• Prepositional
• Demonstrative and Number before Noun
• Possessive and Adjective before or after Noun (Indefinite and Definite respectively)
• Genitive and Relative after Noun

Nouns:

	Indefinite	Definite
Nominative	NO AFFIX	-en /-en/
Accusative	-ee /-eː/	-enee /-eneː/
Genitive	-ez /-ez/	-enz /-enz/

Verbs:

• Verb ending -r /r ~ r̩/
• Future particle: see /seː/ (before verb)
• Present: NO AFFIX
• Past: -ø /-ø/
• Remote Past: -o̊ /-ɔ/
• Null: -o̊rk /-ɔrk/ (Singular finite event, but unknown or irrelevant time)
• Active Indicative: NO AFFIX
• Passive Indicative: fpe- /fpe-/
• Active Imperative: -å /-ɒ/
• Passive Imperative: fpå- /fpɒ-/

Aspect:
Þvo̊o̊lð has no imperfective aspect. For the perfect aspect, the particle finish legeirfr /legæi̯˞rf is inserted immediately before the verb.
Pronouns:

	Nominative	Accusative	Genitive/Possessive
1st Sing.	øjj /øjj/	ii /iː/	kii /kiː/
2nd Sing.	þæ /θæ/	þev̊ /θeɦ̪͆/	þn /θn̩/
3rd Sing.	øm /øm/	tveeft /tʋeːft/	v̊esks /ɦ̪͆esks/
1st Pl.	koov /koːʋ/	rer /re˞	ko̊o̊ /kɔː/
2nd Pl.	tvååfs /tʋɒːfs/	nla /nlɑ/	mli /mli/
3rd Pl.	kjeests /ʂeːsts/	sprort /spro˞rt/	blæ /blæ/

Notes

• Þvo̊o̊lð is highly agglutinative. All verbs in a single clause are usually agglutinated together to form a single larger verb. Adjective similarly agglutinate when applying to the same noun.
• Stress is extremely strict, always following the pattern (X being a syllable) ˈX.XˌX.XˌX.X... There is no situation in which this stress pattern may be broken, even in loan words.
• When writing, names of importance to the conversation or work are often written upside down to make them stand out. This only applies to personal names, not place names, or the names of objects.

The first version didn't turn out very well, so, taking into account the help from u/hellerick_3, I decided to delete the old post... I hope the moderator won't mind.
Well then, let me present my attempt at creating French Cyrillic.
Here's the alphabet: А Б В Г Д Е Ж З И Ј К Л М Н Ҥ Њ О Ӧ П Р С Т У Ү Ф Ч Ш Э ъ

Langue Française	IPA	Лангъ Франсэзъ
a, â, à, aa	a/ɑ	А а
aï	a.i	Аи аи
ao, aô	a.ɔ/a.o	Ао ао
aou, aoû	a.u	Ау ау
am, an, ann, aen, aën, aon, em, en	ɑ̃	Ан ан
eoi, oê, oi, oie, oî,	wa/wɑ	Ўa ўa
oy	waj	Ўај ўај
b, bb	b	Б б
v, w	v/w	В в
g, gg, gu (before e, i, y)	g	Г г
gg (before e, i, y)	gʒ	Гж гж
d, dd	d	Д д
æ, ae, e, é, ée, ê, er (at the end of the word)	e/ə	Е е
j, g (before e, i, y), ge (before a, o, u)	ʒ	Ж ж
z, s	z	З з
i, y, ea (before g), ee, î, ie (at the end of the word), y, ÿ	i	И и
y, i (before vowel); ï (initially or between vowels); il, ilh, ill ( after some vowels)	j	Ј ј
ew	ju	Ју ју
c, qu, k, cc, q, cqu	k	К к
cc (before e, i, y), x, xc (before e, i, y)	ks	Кс кс
ct (finally)	kt	Кт кт
xc	ksk	Кск кск
l, ll	l	Л л
m, mm	m	М м
n, nn	n/ ̃(Shows the nasalization of the previous vowel unless it is followed by a vowel or Ъ)	Н н
ng	ŋ	Ҥ ҥ
gn	ɲ	Њ њ
au, eau, o, ô, aw, ow	o/ɔ	О о
oe, oë	ɔ.e/ɔ.ɛ	Ое ое
oï	ɔ.i	Ои ои
oo	ɔ.ɔ	Оо оо
on, om	õ/ɔ̃	Он он
eu, eû, œ, œu	ø/œ	Ӧ ӧ
eun, um, un	ø̃/œ̃	Ӧн ӧн
p, b, bb, pp	p	П п
r, rr	ʁ	Р р
s (before e, i, y), ç, c (before e, i, y), sc (before e, i, y), ss	s	С с
sc	sk	Ск ск
st (finally)	st	Ст ст
t, tt, th, cte (finally as feminine form of adjectives ending)	t	Т т
ou, où, oû, oue (finally), u ( before vowel)	u/ɥ	У у
u, û, ue (finally), uë (finally), üe (finally)	y	Ү ү
f, ff, ph	f	Ф ф
tch	t͡ʃ	Ч ч
ch, sch	ʃ	Ш ш
ai, aî, aie, -ay, e, è, ê, ei, eî, -ey	ɛ/ɛː	Э э
aim, ain, em (before é, i, y), en (before é, i, y), eim, ein, im, in, în, ym, yn	ɛ̃/ɛ̃ː	Эн эн
aye (finally)	ɛj	Эј эј
oê	wɛ	Ўэ ўэ
oin, oën	wɛ̃	Ўэн ўэн
eu (initialy); h (everywhere); bs, cs, ds, fs, gs, ps, ts, b, bb, d, dd, g, p, pp, s, t, tt, x, z, s, t, tt, ent, es (finally)	Ø
e (finally or in a position where it can be easily elided)	Ø	ъ

And here's an example:

Article premier de la Déclaration Universelle des Droits de l'homme:

Tous les êtres humains naissent libres et égaux en dignité et en droits. Ils sont doués de raison et de conscience et doivent agir les uns envers les autres dans un esprit de fraternité.

Артиклъ премје де ла Декларасјон Үнивэрсэлъ де Дрўа де Л'омъ:

Ту ле этр үмен нэсъ либр е его ан дињите е ан дрўa. Ил сон дўе де рэзон е де консјансъ е дўaв ажир ле ӧн анвэр ле отръ дан ӧн эспри де фратэрните.

hi, this is gonna be a quick post.
sooo today i took the premise of the conlang ka (on youtube), and used toki pona words.
now, the whole vocabulary is just two words.

• alphabet: i, l, n

vocabulary:

• ni - subject, object
• li - verb, preposition, adjective

grammar:

• -SVO word order, unlike toki pona.
• -li (as an adjective) goes after ni/li when willing
• to modify it (see, toki pona: ijo nasa - thing weird)
• -pronounciation is ipa

​
example sentence:

• ni li li ni - subject verb preposition object

CLOSED
It’s that time again! What time is that you ask? Technically it’s Daylight Savings, but I’m talking about something far more exciting than that. It’s time for MadLibs!!
Anyone else an 80’s baby? Oh they were good times. It was totally awesome. So go park your DeLorean, spray a couple of cans of AquaNet, put away that Walkman and come play some MadLibs with me.
RULES
1) Open WW, if not from the US please have email address provided for gift card
2) Have an INTRO before 3-10-2024
3) Be active in this fabulous community. I like to see people who have been interacting with others in the Daily/Nightly, Activity, and Discussion threads. If you haven’t done so then do so now. Like I said we are fabulous, like totally rad!
4) Contest will end Tuesday March 12, at 10:00 a.m. CST. Gifting will occur soon after
5) use the phrase 80’s baby
6) Down below please give me
4 nouns , 3 parts of the body , 2 plural nouns , 2 numbers , 1 verb ending in “ing , 1 letter of the alphabet , 1 animal , 1 adjective , 1 country , 1 article of clothing

I want to make a conlang based on the sounds and the cuneiform logograms, numerals, and their semi-alphabet of Old Persian but with some to most aspects of the grammar and majority of the words based on Hittite, Akkadian (Babylonian and Assyrian dialects aswell), Sumerian, Elamite, and some Aramaic, but I don't know if it is a relex since it retains the cuneiform and sounds of Old Persian which simply merge sound to words from the languages I mentioned
​
Ie; Antuhsa means man/human in Hittite roughly, but in the conlang I want to make it would be more like Namuša (𐎴𐎸𐏁) but it still is effectively the exact same word, but it sounds different, used differently when writing it (Hittite describes things with the adjective before the noun, so a vase that is great would be written "the great vase", while in the language I am trying to make it would be "the vase great" with the adjective after), and uses a different script to write it

I am writing a toy program.. it takes a string say "tom" and splits it into individual characters and gives out the following data
t = thriving o = ornate m = mad here the adjectives thriving, ornate and mad are stored in a data structure as key value pairs eg: ('a' , "awesome")
The issue i have is when a string has the same characters, the same adjective gets repeated and i don't want repetitions.
eg:- if i give the name sebastian, the adjectives "serene" and "awesome" is repeated twice.. which i don't want..
It should select another adjective for the letters s and a ? How do i do that? Should i add more data structures? How do i move from one to another so as to avoid repetitions?
I am reproducing the code done till now below
​

-- Main.hs module Main where import qualified Data.Map as Map -- Define a map containing key-value pairs of alphabets and their values alphabetMap :: Map.Map Char String alphabetMap = Map.fromList [ ('a', "awesome"), ('b', "beautiful"), ('c', "creative"), ('d', "delightful"), ('e', "energetic"), ('f', "friendly"), ('g', "graceful"), ('h', "happy"), ('i', "innovative"), ('j', "joyful"), ('k', "kind"), ('l', "lovely"), ('m', "mad"), ('n', "nice"), ('o', "ornate"), ('p', "peaceful"), ('q', "quiet"), ('r', "radiant"), ('s', "serene"), ('t', "thriving"), ('u', "unique"), ('v', "vibrant"), ('w', "wonderful"), ('x', "xenial"), ('y', "youthful"), ('z', "zealous") ] -- Function to look up a character in the map and return its value lookupChar :: Char -> String lookupChar char = case Map.lookup char alphabetMap of Just val -> val Nothing -> "Unknown" -- Function to split a string into characters and look up their values lookupString :: String -> [String] lookupString str = map lookupChar str main :: IO () main = do putStrLn "Enter a string:" input <- getLine let result = lookupString input putStrLn "Result:" mapM_ putStrLn result 

Thanks in advance for helping out..

I am writing a toy program.. it takes a string say "tom" and splits it into individual characters and gives out the following data
t = thriving o = ornate m = mad here the adjectives thriving, ornate and mad are stored in a data structure as key value pairs eg: ('a' , "awesome")
The issue i have is when a string has the same characters, the same adjective gets repeated and i don't want repetitions.
eg:- if i give the name sebastian, the adjectives "serene" and "awesome" is repeated twice.. which i don't want..
It should select another adjective for the letters s and a ? How do i do that? Should i add more data structures? How do i move from one to another so as to avoid repetitions?
I am reproducing the code done till now below
​

-- Main.hs module Main where import qualified Data.Map as Map -- Define a map containing key-value pairs of alphabets and their values alphabetMap :: Map.Map Char String alphabetMap = Map.fromList [ ('a', "awesome"), ('b', "beautiful"), ('c', "creative"), ('d', "delightful"), ('e', "energetic"), ('f', "friendly"), ('g', "graceful"), ('h', "happy"), ('i', "innovative"), ('j', "joyful"), ('k', "kind"), ('l', "lovely"), ('m', "mad"), ('n', "nice"), ('o', "ornate"), ('p', "peaceful"), ('q', "quiet"), ('r', "radiant"), ('s', "serene"), ('t', "thriving"), ('u', "unique"), ('v', "vibrant"), ('w', "wonderful"), ('x', "xenial"), ('y', "youthful"), ('z', "zealous") ] -- Function to look up a character in the map and return its value lookupChar :: Char -> String lookupChar char = case Map.lookup char alphabetMap of Just val -> val Nothing -> "Unknown" -- Function to split a string into characters and look up their values lookupString :: String -> [String] lookupString str = map lookupChar str main :: IO () main = do putStrLn "Enter a string:" input <- getLine let result = lookupString input putStrLn "Result:" mapM_ putStrLn result 

Thanks in advance for helping out..

I am writing a toy program.. it takes a string say "tom" and splits it into individual characters and gives out the following data
t = thriving o = ornate m = mad here the adjectives thriving, ornate and mad are stored in a data structure as key value pairs eg: ('a' , "awesome")
The issue i have is when a string has the same characters, the same adjective gets repeated and i don't want repetitions.
eg:- if i give the name sebastian, the adjectives "serene" and "awesome" is repeated twice.. which i don't want..
It should select another adjective for the letters s and a ? How do i do that? Should i add more data structures? How do i move from one to another so as to avoid repetitions?
I am reproducing the code done till now below

-- Main.hs module Main where import qualified Data.Map as Map -- Define a map containing key-value pairs of alphabets and their values alphabetMap :: Map.Map Char String alphabetMap = Map.fromList [ ('a', "awesome"), ('b', "beautiful"), ('c', "creative"), ('d', "delightful"), ('e', "energetic"), ('f', "friendly"), ('g', "graceful"), ('h', "happy"), ('i', "innovative"), ('j', "joyful"), ('k', "kind"), ('l', "lovely"), ('m', "mad"), ('n', "nice"), ('o', "ornate"), ('p', "peaceful"), ('q', "quiet"), ('r', "radiant"), ('s', "serene"), ('t', "thriving"), ('u', "unique"), ('v', "vibrant"), ('w', "wonderful"), ('x', "xenial"), ('y', "youthful"), ('z', "zealous") ] -- Function to look up a character in the map and return its value lookupChar :: Char -> String lookupChar char = case Map.lookup char alphabetMap of Just val -> val Nothing -> "Unknown" -- Function to split a string into characters and look up their values lookupString :: String -> [String] lookupString str = map lookupChar str main :: IO () main = do putStrLn "Enter a string:" input <- getLine let result = lookupString input putStrLn "Result:" mapM_ putStrLn result I am writing a toy program.. it takes a string say "tom" and splits it into individual characters and gives out the following data t = thriving o = ornate m = mad here the adjectives thriving, ornate and mad are stored in a data structure as key value pairs eg: ('a' , "awesome") The issue i have is when a string has the same characters, the same adjective gets repeated and i don't want repetitions. eg:- if i give the name sebastian, the adjectives "serene" and "awesome" is repeated twice.. which i don't want.. It should select another adjective for the letters s and a ? How do i do that? Should i add more data structures? How do i move from one to another so as to avoid repetitions? I am reproducing the code done till now below -- Main.hs module Main where import qualified Data.Map as Map -- Define a map containing key-value pairs of alphabets and their values alphabetMap :: Map.Map Char String alphabetMap = Map.fromList [ ('a', "awesome"), ('b', "beautiful"), ('c', "creative"), ('d', "delightful"), ('e', "energetic"), ('f', "friendly"), ('g', "graceful"), ('h', "happy"), ('i', "innovative"), ('j', "joyful"), ('k', "kind"), ('l', "lovely"), ('m', "mad"), ('n', "nice"), ('o', "ornate"), ('p', "peaceful"), ('q', "quiet"), ('r', "radiant"), ('s', "serene"), ('t', "thriving"), ('u', "unique"), ('v', "vibrant"), ('w', "wonderful"), ('x', "xenial"), ('y', "youthful"), ('z', "zealous") ] -- Function to look up a character in the map and return its value lookupChar :: Char -> String lookupChar char = case Map.lookup char alphabetMap of Just val -> val Nothing -> "Unknown" -- Function to split a string into characters and look up their values lookupString :: String -> [String] lookupString str = map lookupChar str main :: IO () main = do putStrLn "Enter a string:" input <- getLine let result = lookupString input putStrLn "Result:" mapM_ putStrLn result 

Edit: Thanks all for the various suggestions .. Like i said i am a newcomer to haskell and am comfortable only in basics .. Yet to learn use of packages beyond IO / trim etc..
I got a solution and while its lengthy.. it works.. wanted to run it by you guys and see if you can review or make it simpler or more "idiomatic" ?

import Data.Char (toLower) import Data.Map.Strict (Map) import qualified Data.Map.Strict as Map import (hFlush, stdout) -- Data set containing adjectives adjectives :: Map Char [String] adjectives = Map.fromList [ ('a', ["awesome", "amazing", "adventurous"]), ('b', ["brilliant", "beautiful", "bold"]), ('c', ["charming", "creative", "curious"]), ('d', ["daring", "delightful", "dynamic"]), ('e', ["energetic", "enthusiastic", "extraordinary"]), ('f', ["friendly", "fun", "fearless"]), ('g', ["graceful", "generous", "glamorous"]), ('h', ["happy", "helpful", "honest"]), ('i', ["intelligent", "inspiring", "inventive"]), ('j', ["joyful", "jubilant", "jovial"]), ('k', ["kind", "keen", "knowledgeable"]), ('l', ["lovely", "lively", "luxurious"]), ('m', ["magical", "magnificent", "mindful"]), ('n', ["nice", "neat", "noble"]), ('o', ["optimistic", "outgoing", "original"]), ('p', ["peaceful", "positive", "playful"]), ('q', ["quick-witted", "quirky", "quality-conscious"]), ('r', ["radiant", "resourceful", "reliable"]), ('s', ["sincere", "sweet", "spirited"]), ('t', ["thoughtful", "talented", "tenacious"]), ('u', ["upbeat", "unique", "unforgettable"]), ('v', ["vibrant", "vivacious", "valiant"]), ('w', ["warm", "witty", "wonderful"]), ('x', ["xenial", "xtraordinary", "xenodochial"]), ('y', ["youthful", "yummy", "yare"]), ('z', ["zealous", "zesty", "zany"]) ] -- Function to lookup adjectives for a character lookupAdjectives :: Char -> [String] lookupAdjectives c = case Map.lookup (toLower c) adjectives of Just adjList -> adjList Nothing -> [""] -- Function to get unique adjectives for a name getUniqueAdjectives :: String -> [String] getUniqueAdjectives name = go name [] where go [] _ = [] go (c:cs) usedAdjs = let availableAdjs = filter (`notElem` usedAdjs) $ lookupAdjectives c adj = case availableAdjs of [] -> "" (x:_) -> x in adj : go cs (if adj == "" then usedAdjs else adj:usedAdjs) main :: IO () main = do putStrLn "Enter a name:" hFlush stdout name <- getLine let uniqueAdjectives = getUniqueAdjectives name putStrLn "Unique adjectives for each character:" mapM_ putStrLn uniqueAdjectives input string "aaron" Unique adjectives for each character awesome amazing radiant optimistic nice A big thanks to .. for clearing cobwebs in my basics.. about key value pairs.. I wasted so much time thinking of multiple datasets .. :D and for the idea of removing used adjectives.. .. spent a lot of time on hoogle too.. couldnt crack it.. Guess i am still not upto mark here.. Thanks once again. 

Thanks once again.

Hello! After spending a few days reading up on various German learning resources, I compiled this guide to help with my own German studies towards the 3 gender articles and wanted a native speaker's/advanced learner's input to see if there is anything I should add or take away.
Thank you very much!
*Disclaimer: Yes, I am very aware that there are even more exceptions to the rules I listed below, each with their own unique reasonings.*
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der - Masculine

Noun groups
​

• Nouns referring to males

der Mann (man), der Vater (father), der Italiener (Italian man)

​

• Animals (leaning more towards larger, wilder species)

der Bock (billy goat), der Hahn (rooster), der Stier (bull), der Eber (boar)

​

• Car brands

der BMW, der Skoda, der Ford, der Ferrari, der Audi, der VW, der Mercedes

​

• Currency

der Dollar, der Euro, der Cent, der Schilling, der Pfennig, der Franken
Exceptions: die Mark (old German ℳ), das Pfund (British £), die Krone (Danish kr.)

​

• Days, Months, Seasons, and other temporal nouns

der Sonntag, der Januar, der Winter, der Monat, der Abend
Exceptions: das Jahr (year), die Nacht (night), die Woche (week), das Frühjahr (spring)

​

• Cardinal Directions

der Norden (north), der Osten (east), der Suden (south), der Westen (west)

​

• Drinks: Alcoholic & Plant-based beverages

der Gin, der Schnaps, der Wein (wine), der Kakao (cocoa), der Saft (juice)
Exception: Das Bier

​

• Mountains & Mountain ranges

der Mount Everest, der Montblanc, der Himalaja*, der Taunus, der Balkan
Exceptions/Rules: die Eifel, die Haardt, die Rhön, die Sierra Nevada, and mountains / mountain ranges that are actually compound nouns (compound nouns take the gender of the final noun): das Erzgebirge, das Matterhorn, die Zugspitze

​

• Non-German Rivers

der Ganges, der Mississippi, der Nil, der Delaware (river)*, der Jordan, der Kongo
Exceptions/Rules: non-German rivers ending in -a or -e, are feminine e.g.: die Seine, die Themse (Thames), die Wolga

​

• Outer Space

der Mond (moon), der Stern (star), der Merkur (Mercury), der Mars, der Jupiter, der Saturn, der Uranus, der Pluto
Exceptions: die Sonne (sun), die Venus, die Erde (Earth)

​

• Rocks & Minerals

der Diamant, der Granit, der Lehm (clay), der Quarz, der Ton (cement)
Exceptions: das Erz (ore), die Kohle (coal), die Kreide (chalk), das Mineral (mineral)

​

• Weather conditions

der Sonnenschein (sunshine), der Renen (rain), der Schnee (snow), der Hagel (hail, large)
Exceptions: die Sonne (sun), die Wolke (cloud), die Brise (breeze), das Eis (ice), das Gewitter (thunderstorm), die Graupel (hail, small), das Wetter (weather), die Witterung (atmospheric conditions)

​
Noun forms
​

• Nouns ending in -ant, -ast, -ich, -ig, -ling, -or, -us, -ismus, -ist

der Konsonant (consonant), der Kontrast (contrast), der Teppich (rug/carpet), der Käfig (cage), der Schwächling (weakling), der Faktor (factor), der Zirkus (circus), der Kommunismus (communism), der Kapitalist (capitalist)

​

• 60% of nouns ending in -en, -el, -er

der Hafen (harbor), der Flügel (wing), der Schatten (shade), and all nouns referring to people (most are from verbs), e.g:. der Bäcker (baker, from backen), der Fahrer (driver, from fahren)
Exceptions/rules: All gerunds (some examples include): das Essen (the food, eating) or das Fahren (driving). For nouns it's: die Butter (butter), die Regel (rule), die Wurzel (root), die Geisel (hostage), das Fieber (fever), das Segel (sail), das Zeichen (sign, symbol)

​

• Most nouns ending in -ar, - -är, -and, iker, -ier, -eur, -or, -an, -ent, -ant (my observations)

der Bibliothekar (library), der Bär (bear), der Doktorand (Ph.D student), der Romantiker (romanticist), der Offizier (officer), der Friseur (barber), der Motor (motor), der Elefant (elephant), , der Kontinent (continent), der Fabrikant (maker),

​

• Nouns that form their plural by adding (Umlaut) + e

der Brief (die Briefe) (letter), der Satz (die Sätze) (sentence/phrase/set)

​

• Nouns formed from an infinitive minus -en (I.e. Der Besuch (Busuchen))

der Betrieb (betreiben) (operation, company, plant), der Biss (bite, from bissen), der Fall (case, instance; drop, from fallen), der Gang (gear; aisle/corridor; walk)
Exceptions: das Grab (grave), das Leid (harm, sorrow), das Maß (measurement), das Schloss (castle), das Verbot (ban, prohibition)
​

• Foreign words with the stress on the last syllable

der Soldat (soldier); der Salat (salad)

​

• Most nouns that begin with Kn- (my observation)

der Knochen (bone), der Knopf (button), der Knast (prison *slang)

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die - Feminine

Noun groups
​

• Nouns referring to females

die Frau (woman), die Mutter (mother), die Ärztin (doctor), die Italienerin (Italian woman)
Exceptions: das Fräulein (young woman, miss), das Mädchen (girl)

​

• Airplane, motorcycle, & ship makes/models/names

die Boeing, die Cessna, die BMW, die Honda, die “Bismarck”, die “Bremen”
Exceptions: Means of transportation that maintain the gender of the base word, e.g.: der Airbus, der Storch, der “Albatros”, das “Möwchen” & general means of transportation: der Zug (train) [but die Bahn (railway/train)!], der Wagen / das Auto (car), das Schiff/Boot (ship/boot), das Fahrrad (bike), das Motorrad (motorcycle)

​

• Animals and insects (Unsure if this leans more towards farm animals and insects)

die Gans (goose), die Kuh (cow), die Sau (sow), die Henne (hen), die Floh (flea), die Motte (moth)

​

• Numerals used as nouns

die Eins (1), die Zwei (2), die Sechzehn (16), die Million (million), die Milliarde (billion)
Exceptions: Quantity expressions such as das Dutzend (dozen), das Hundert (hundred), das Tausend (thousand)

​

• Rivers in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland

die Donau, die Elbe, die Havel, die Mosel, die Oder, die Weser
Exceptions: der Inn, der Lech, der Main, der Neckar, der Rhein

​

• Trees, fruits, and flowers

die Eiche (oak), die Pflaume (plum), die Tulpe (tulip)
Exceptions: der Ahorn (maple), der Apfel (apple), der Löwenzahn (dandelion)

​
Noun forms
​

• Nouns ending in -a, -(a)nz, -(e)nz -ei, -ie, -heit, -keit, -ik, -sion, -tion, -ion -sis, -tät, -ung, -ur, -schaft

die Pizza, die Dissonanz (dissonance), die Frequenz (frequency), die Konditorei (pastry shop), die Demokratie (democracy), die Dummheit (stupidity), die Möglichkeit (possibility), die Musik (music), die Explosion, die Revolution, die Basis, die Realität (reality), die Prüfung (exam), die Prozedur (procedure), die Freundschaft (friendship)
Exceptions: das Sofa, das Genie (genius), der Atlantik (atlantic), der Katholik (catholic), das Mosaik (mosaic), der Pazifik (pacific), das Abitur (university-entrance diploma), das Purpur (purple)

​

• 90% of nouns ending in -e

die Blume (flower), die Lampe (lamp), die Katze (cat), die Decke (blanket; ceiling) die Collage, die Marionette
Exceptions/rules: der Käse (cheese), das Auge (eye), das Ende (end), das Interesse (interest),most nouns that end with -e but begin with Ge- (e.g. das Genie)

​

• Nouns that refer to females in a given profession ending in -in or -frau

die Studentin (female student), die Kauffrau (businesswoman)

​

• Most nouns (coming from verbs) ending in -t

die Ankunft (arrival), die Fahrt (drive), die Macht (power), die Aussicht (view)
Exceptions: der Dienst (service), der Durst (thirst), das Gift (poison)

​

• Nouns that form their plural by (e)+n ending

die Tante (die tanten) (aunt), die Zeitschrift (die Zeitschriften) (journal/magazine)

​

• Plural form of any noun

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das - Neuter

Noun groups
​

• Young people & baby animals

das Baby, das Kind (child), das Ferkel (piglet), das Fohlen (foal), das Lamm (lamb)

​

• Alphabet letters & musical notes

das “A”, das “B”, das “Fis” (F-sharp), das “Des” (D-flat)

​

• Continents, cities, provinces, and most countries

das Afrika, das London, das Frankreich (France), das Bayern (Bavaria)
Exceptions/rules: die Arktis (Artic), die Antarktis (Antarctica), die Schweiz (Switzerland) and other provinces or countries, including those that end in -a, -e, -ei, and -ie (e.g. die Türkei) that are gendered feminine with the exception of Afrika and China, which are still neuter;some countries are masculine: der Iran, der Jemen, der Kongo, der Libanon, der Sudan.

​

• Gerunds

das Singen (singing), das Essen (eating), das Trinken (drinking), das Lesen (reading)

​

• Languages

das Englisch (English), das Japanisch (Japanese), das Spanisch (Spanish)

​

• Colors used as nouns

das Blau (blue), das Schwarz (black), das Rosa (pink)

​

• English -ing forms and other parts of speech used as nouns

das Meeting (meeting); das Training (training), das Gaming (gaming), das Nein (no)

​

• Hotels, cafes, restaurants, and movie theaters

das Marriott, das “Hard-Rock”, das Hilton, das “Grand Rex”

​

• Metals and chemical elements on the periodic table

das Gold (gold), das Silber (silver), das Eisen (iron), das Bor* (boron); das Neon (neon)
Exceptions/rules: Other chemical elements will show up as masculine and follow the ending suffix -or (except boron), -el, and -stoff: der Phosphor (Phosphorus), der Schwefel (sulfuer), der Wasserstoff (hydrogen), der Sauerstoff (oxygen)

​

• Scientific measuring units

das Meter (meter), das Liter (liter), das Kilogramm (kilogram); das Megahertz (megahertz/MHz)
NOTE: Meter and Liter having varying gender (der - masculine)

​
Noun forms
​

• Diminutive nouns that all end in -chen, -lein

das Mädchen (little girl), das Fräulein (young woman, miss), das Röslein (little rose)

​

• Nouns ending in -icht, -il, -it, -ma, -ment, -tel, -tum, -um, -eau

das Dickicht (thicket), das Ventil (valve), das Dynamit (dynamite), das Schema (schematic), das Experiment, das Viertel (quarter), das Christentum (christianity), das Museum, das Individuum (individual)
Exceptions: der Profit, der Granit, die Firma (company), der Zement (cement), der Reichtum (wealth), der Irrtum (error)

​

• Most nouns that start with Ge-

das Gesetz (law), das Gespräch (conversation), das Gebäude (building)
Exceptions/rules: der Gedanke (thought), der Geschmack (taste).approx. 20 other masculine and feminine nouns that start with Ge- (not counting any Ge- nouns referring to male or female persons such as der Genosse / die Genossin — comrade)

​

• 70% of nouns ending in -nis and -sal

das Bedürfnis (need), das Ereignis (event), das Schicksal (fate)
Exceptions/rules: The remaining 30% of -nis and -sal nouns are feminine and many originate from adjectives or indicate states of mind: die Bitternis (bitterness), die Finsternis (darkness), die Besorgnis (anxiety), die Betrübnis (sadness). Other: die Erkenntnis (perception), die Erlaubnis (permission), die Kenntnis (knowledge, cognition, skills), die Mühsal (hardship)

​

• Nouns ending in -al, -an, -ar, -är, -at, -ent, -ett, -ier, -iv-, -o, -on (foreign loan words for objects)

das Organ, das Formular, das Militär (military), das Sekretariat (secretary), das Talent, das Etikett (label, tag), das Papier (paper), das Adjecktiv (adjective), das Büro (office), das Mikrophon (microphone)

Exceptions/Rules: IF the suffixes -al, -an, -ar, -är, -at, -ent, -ett, -ier, -iv-, -o, -on are used to refer to male persons, they take the masculine: der Student, der Militär (military man), der Kanadier (male Canadian).
​

• Nominalized adjectives

das Gute (the good), das Schöne (the beautiful), das Große (the big), das Kleine (the small)
Exception/Rule: When an adjective is used as a noun and refers to people, it can take the gender-appropriate article. For example: der Gute (the good (one)) - referring to a good person (masculine), die Gute (the good (one)) - referring to a good person (feminine)

​

• Most nouns that form their Plural from (Umlaut) + er

Das Haus (die Häuser) (house), das Kind (die Kinder) (child), das Buch (die Bücher) (book)

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Other rules & English Loan word rules

​

• Acronyms have their articles determined by the 1st(?) word

die CDU (Christlich-Demokratische Union)

​

• English loan words will take the suffix it has at the end. Sometimes, it will take the way the suffix is pronounced despite being spelled differently.

der Computer (-er is generally a masculine ending), der Rotor (-or is a masculine ending)die City, die Party, die Lobby, die Story (-ie is a feminine ending; pronounced identically),das Ticket, das Pamphlet (-ett is a neuter ending) das Advertisement, das Treatment (-ment is a neuter ending)

​

• In the event where there are no indications, monosyllabic loan words (and sometimes non-loan words) generally use the masculine article - der

der Hit, der Look, der Rock, der Talk, der Lunch, der Spot, der Trend
Exceptions: die Bar, die Couch, das Steak, das Team
NOTE: Loan words that are phrasal verbs or -ing forms are usually neuter: das Handout, das Teach-in, das Check-up, das Meeting, das Blow-up

​

• English loan words may take the gender of the nearest German equivalent

der Airbag (der Sack) , die Box (die Büchse), der Lift (der Aufzug), das Baby (das Kind), der Shop (der Laden) , das Handy (das Telefon)

​

• The final word in a compound noun determines the gender

der Fahrplan (timetable) , die Bushaltestelle (bus stop)

​

• Some nouns have ambiguous genders and depending on which article is used will change its meaning entirely

der See (lake), die See (sea), der Golf (gulf), das Golf (golf)

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And there you have it.
Please feel free to tell me just how accurate any of these points are and if anything should be added/removed. There's a whole lot of overlaps/overwrites going on with the language but I hope using this can help someone in need :)
Resources I used: German with Laura, YourGermanteacher, u/Missa_nna's guide to articles, Ed Swick's German Grammar drills pg. 9-10
Thank you for taking the time to read all of this!