Art by Bob Nicholls
Nowadays, when we envision the words “prey,” among modern mammalian fauna, few taxa come to mind as quickly as the hoofed mammals, better known as the ungulates. Indeed, for the better part of their entire evolutionary history, the ungulates have become entirely indistinguishable from the term “prey.” Across their two major modern branches, the artiodactyls (the “even-toed ungulates,” such as bovids, pigs, deer, hippos and giraffes) and the perissodactyls (the “odd-toed ungulates,” including horses, rhinos and tapir), the ungulates too have created an empire spanning nearly every continent, establishing themselves as the the dominant herbivores throughout their entire range. However, as a price for such success, their lot as herbivores have forced them into an unenviable position: being the food for the predators. Indeed, throughout the diets of most modern predators, ungulates make up the majority, if not the entirety, of their diet, becoming their counterparts in this evolutionary dance of theirs. They have become the lamb to their wolf, the zebra to their lion, the stag to their tiger. If there is a predator in need of lunch, chances are that there is an ungulate there to provide it. Of course, such a dynamic is not necessarily a recent innovation. For the last 15-20 million years, across much of the world, both new and old, the ungulates have served as prey for these predators through it all. Over the course of whole epochs, these two groups have played into these roles for millions of years, coevolving with each other in an eons-long game of cat-and-mouse. The shoes they fill are not new, but have existed for ages, and within their niches they have cultivated their roles to perfection. Indeed, with such a tenured history, it seems hardly surprising the ungulates are wholly inseparable from the terms “prey,” itself.
However, while this is the case now, as it has been for the last 15-20 million years, go back far enough, and we see that this dynamic is not as set in stone as we would think. Indeed, back during the Eocene and Oligocene, during the very earliest days of age of mammals, things were very different for the ungulates. While today they are considered little more than food for modern predators, during these olden days, the ungulates weren’t quite so benign. In fact, far from being fodder for top predators, the ungulates had turned the tables, instead becoming top predators themselves. Indeed, though nearly unheard of today, throughout much of the Eocene and Oligocene, carnivorous ungulates thrived in abundance, developing specializations for catching large prey and establishing themselves as top predators that competed alongside the more traditional carnivores, and even dominating them in some instances. Given such success, it’s no wonder that multiple such clades had arisen during this time. Such predators included the arctocyonids, a lineage of (ironically) hoof-less ungulates with large jaws and sharp teeth for capturing large prey. There were also the mesonychians, a lineage of dog-like ungulates with massive skulls and jaws that allowed them to reign as the top predator across much of the Eocene.
However, among these various lineages, one stands stands out among the rest, by far. Arising during the Eocene, this lineage, though superficially resembling modern pigs, hailed from one an ancient lineage of artiodactyls far removed from swine or most other ungulates in general, with few close relatives alive today. Through perhaps not the most predatory of the bunch, it was among the most formidable, as their superficially pig-like appearance came with giant predatory jaws and teeth unlike anything from the modern era. And of course, as if all of that wasn’t enough, this lineage also went on to earn arguably one of the most badass nicknames of any lineage of mammals, period. These predators, of course, were the entelodonts, a.k.a the “hell-pigs.” More so than any other predatory ungulate lineage, these formidable ungulates were the ones to turn the current paradigm upside down, becoming some of the largest and most dominant carnivores in their landscape, even with (and often in spite of) the presence of more traditional predators. Through impressive size, fearsome teeth and sheer tenacity, these animals became the top dogs of their time, ruling as behemoth-kings of their Paleogene kingdoms, domineering all comers, and throughout the ranks, one entelodont in particular demonstrated such dominance the best. Though not the largest or most powerful of their kind, it is one of the most iconic, being among the most well-known members of its lineage to date. Moreover, this enteledont also has some of the most complete life histories ever seen out of this clade, with its brutality and predatory prowess being displayed in the fossil record in a way seen in no other member of its kind. More than anything else, however, it was this predator that best turned the notion of “ungulates being prey” on its head, living in an environment that bore some of the largest carnivoran hypercarnivores to date and still reigning as the undisputed top predator of its domain. This fearsome beast was none other than Archaeotherium, icon of the entelodonts, terror of the Oligocene American west and undisputed king of the White River badlands.
The rise of Archaeotherium (and of entelodonts in general) is closely tied to the ascendancy of carnivorous ungulates as a whole, one of the earliest evolutionary success stories of the entire Cenozoic. Having become their own derived clade since the late Cretaceous, the ungulates were remarkably successful during the early Paleogene, as they were among the first mammalian clades to reach large sizes during those early days after the non-avian dinosaurs had gone extinct. As such, it was with incredible swiftness that, as the Paleogene progressed, the ungulates swooped upon the various niches left empty by the K-Pg mass extinction that killed the dinosaurs. This of course included the herbivorous niches we would know them for today, but this also included other, much more carnivore roles. Indeed, early on during the Paleogene, it was the ungulates that first seized the roles of large mammalian predators, becoming some the earliest large mammalian carnivores to ever live, well before even the carnivorans. Such predators included the arctocyonids, a lineage of vaguely dog-like, hoof-less ungulates with robust jaws and sharpened teeth that acted as some of earliest large carnivores of the Paleocene, with genera such as Arctocyon mumak getting up to the size of big cats. Even more prolific were the mesonychids. More so than what pretty much any other lineage of predator, it was the mesonychids that would stand out as the earliest dominant predators of the early Cenozoic. Growing up to the size of bears and with enormous, bone-crushing jaws, the mesonychids were among the most powerful and successful predators on the market at that time, with a near-global range and being capable of subjugating just about any other predator in their environments. Indeed, they, along with other carnivorous ungulates (as well as ungulates in general), were experiencing a golden age during this time, easily being the most prolific predators of the age. Given such prevalence, it should be no surprise that there would be yet another lineage of predatory ungulates would throw their hat into the ring, and by early Eocene, that contender would none other than the entelodonts.
The very first entelodonts had arisen from artiodactyl ancestors during the Eocene epoch, at a time when artiodactyls were far more diverse and bizarre than they are now. Through today known from their modern herbivorous representatives such as bovines, deer, and antelope, during the Paleocene and Eocene, the artiodacyls, as with most ungulates of that time, were stronger and far more predaceous, particularly when it came to one such clade of artiodactyls, the cetacodontamorphs. Only known today from hippos and another group of artiodactyls (one which will become relevant later), the cetacodantomorphs emerged out of Asia around 55 million years ago, at around the same time that artiodactyls themselves had made their debut. These animals included the first truly predatory artiodactyls, with many of them possessing large skulls with powerful jaws and sharp, predatory teeth. Among their ranks included animals as puny as Indohyus, a piscivorous artiodactyl the size of a cat, to as formidable as Andrewsarchus, a giant, bison-sized predator often touted as one of the largest predatory mammals to ever live. Given such a predatory disposition, it wouldn’t be long until this clade produced a lineage of truly diverse, truly successful predators, and by around 40 million years ago, that is exactly what they did, as it was at that time that the entelodonts themselves first emerged. From their Asian homeland, the entelodonts spread across the world, spreading through not only most of Eurasia but also colonizing North America as well, with genera such as Brachyhyops being found across both continents. Here, in this North American frontier, the entelodonts began to diversify further, turning into their most successful and formidable forms yet, and it was around the late Eocene and early Oligocene that Archaeotherium itself had entered the scene.
Just from a passing glance at Archaeotherium, it is clear how exactly it (as well as the other entelodonts) earned the nickname of “hell-pigs.” It was a bruiser for starters; its body bore a robust, pig-like physique, with prominent neural spines and their associated musculature forming a hump around the shoulder region, similar to the hump of a bison. With such a bulky physique came with it impressive size; the average A. mortoni had a head-body length of roughly 1.6-2.0 m (5.3-6.6 ft), a shoulder height of 1.2 m (4 ft) and a body mass of around 180 kg (396 lb) in weight (Boardman & Secord, 2013; Joeckel, 1990). At such sizes, an adult Archaeotherium the size of a large male black bear. However, they had the potential to get even bigger. While most Archaeotherium specimens were around the size described above, a select few specimens, labeled under the synonymous genus “Megachoerus,” are found to be much larger, with skulls getting up to 66% longer than average A. mortoni specimens (Foss, 2001; Joeckel, 1990). At such sizes and using isometric scaling, such massive Archaeotherium specimens would attained body lengths over 2.5 m (8.2 ft) and would have reached weighs well over 500 kg (1100 lb), or as big as a mature male polar bear. Indeed, at such sizes, it is already abundantly evident that Archaeotherium is a force to be recorded with.
However, there was more to these formidable animals than sheer size alone. Behind all that bulk was an astoundingly swift and graceful predator, especially in terms of locomotion. Indeed, the hoofed feet of Archaeotherium, along with other entelodonts, sported several adaptations that gave it incredible locomotive efficiency, essentially turning it into a speed demon of the badlands. Such adaptations include longer distal leg elements (e.g. the radius and tibia) than their proximal counterparts (e.g. the humerus and femur), fusion of the radius and ulna for increased running efficiency, the loss of the clavicle (collar-bone) to allow for greater leg length, the loss of the acromion to enhance leg movement along the fore-and-aft plane, the loss of digits to reduce the mass of the forelimb, the fusion of the ectocuneiform and the mesocuneiform wrist-bones, among many other such traits (Theodore, 1996) . Perhaps most significant of these adaptations is the evolution of the “double-pulley astragalus (ankle-bone),” a specialized modification of the ankle that, while restricting rotation and side-to-side movement at the ankle-joint, allows for greater rotation in the fore-and-aft direction, thus allowing for more more powerful propulsion from the limbs, faster extension and retraction of the limbs and overall greater locomotive efficiency (Foss, 2001). Of course, such a trait was not only found in entelodonts but in artiodactyls as a whole, likely being a response to predatory pressures from incumbent predatory clades arising at the same time as the artiodactyls (Foss, 2001). However, in the case of the entelodonts, such adaptations were not used for merely escaping predators. Rather, they were used to for another, much more lethal effect…
Such notions are further reinforced by the entelodonts most formidable aspect, none either than their fearsome jaws, and in this respect, Archaeotherium excelled. Both for its size and in general, the head of Archaeotherium was massive, measuring 40-50 cm (1.3-1.6 ft) in length among average A. mortoni specimens, to up to 78 cm (~2.6 ft) in the larger “Megachoerus” specimens (Joeckel, 1990). Such massive skulls were supported and supplemented by equally massive neck muscles and ligaments, which attached to massive neural spines on the anterior thoracic vertebrae akin to a bisons hump as well as to the sternum, allowing Archaeotherium to keep its head aloft despite the skulls massive size (Effinger, 1998). Of course, with such a massive skull, it should come as no surprise that such skulls housed exceptionally formidable jaws as well, and indeed, the bite of Archaeotherium was an especially deadly one. Its zygomatic arches (cheek-bones) and its temporal fossa were enlarged and expanded, indicative of massive temporalis muscles that afforded Archaeotherium astoundingly powerful bites (Joeckel, 1990). This is further augmented by Archaeotherium’s massive jugal flanges (bony projections of the cheek), which supported powerful masseter muscles which enhanced chewing and mastication, as well as an enlarged postorbital bar that reinforced the skull against torsional stresses (Foss, 2001). Last but not least, powerful jaws are supplemented by an enlarged gape, facilitated by a low coronoid process and enlarged posterior mandibular tubercles (bony projections originating from the lower jaw), which provided an insertion site for sternum-to-mandible jaw abduction muscles, allowing for a more forceful opening of the jaw (Foss, 2001). All together, such traits suggest a massive and incredibly fearsome bite, perhaps the most formidable of any animal in its environment.
Of course, none of such traits are especially indicative of a predatory lifestyle. Indeed, many modern non-predatory ungulates, like hippos, pigs and peccaries, also possess large, formidable skulls and jaws. However, in peeling back the layers, it is found there was more to the skull of Archaeotherium that lies in store. Indeed, when inspecting the animal closely, a unique mosaic of features is revealed; traits that make it out to be much more lethal than the average artiodactyl. On one hand, Archaeotherium possessed many traits similar to those of herbivores animals, as is expected of ungulates. For instance, its jaw musculature that allowed the lower jaw of Archaeotherium a full side-to-side chewing motion as in herbivores (whereas most carnivores can only move their lower jaw up and down)(Effinger, 1998). On the other hand, Archaeotherium wielded many other traits far more lethal in their morphology, less akin to a herbivore and far more akin to a bonafide predator. For instance, the aforementioned enlarged gape of Archaeotherium is a bizarre trait on a supposed herbivore, as such animals do not need large gapes to eat vegetation and thus have smaller, more restricted gapes. Conversely, many predatory lineages have comparatively large gapes, as larger gapes allow for the the jaws to grab on to more effectively larger objects, namely large prey animals (Joeckel, 1990).
Such a juxtaposition, however, is most evident when discussing the real killing instruments of Archaeotherium — the teeth. More so than any facet of this animal, the teeth of Archaeotherium are the real stars of the show, showing both how alike it was compared to its herbivores counterparts and more importantly, how it couldn’t be more different. For instance, the molars of Archaeotherium were quite similar to modern herbivores ungulates, in that they were robust, bunodont, and were designed for crushing and grinding, similar in form and function to modern ungulates like peccaries (Joeckel, 1990). However, while the molars give the impression that Archaeotherium was a herbivore, the other teeth tell a very different story. The incisors, for example, were enlarged, sharpened, and fully interlocked (as opposed to the flat-topped incisors seen in herbivores ungulates), creating an incisor array that was seemingly ill-suited for cropping vegetation and much more adept at for gripping, puncturing and cutting (Joeckel, 1990). Even more formidable were the canines. Like the modern pigs from which entelodonts derived their nicknames, the canines of Archaeotherium were sharp and enlarged to form prominent tusk-like teeth, but unlike pigs, they were rounded in cross-section (similar to modern carnivores like big cats, indicating more durable canines that can absorb and resist torsional forces, such as those from struggling prey) and were serrated to form a distinct cutting edge (Effinger, 1998; Joeckel, 1990; Ruff & Van Valkenburgh, 1987). These canines, along with the incisors, interlock to stabilize the jaws while biting and dismantling in a carnivore-like fashion. More strikingly, the canines also seem to act as “occlusal guides,” wherein the canines help align the movement and position of the rear teeth as they come together, allowing for a more efficient shearing action by the rear teeth. This function is seen most prevalently modern carnivorous mammals, and is evidenced by the canine tooth-wear, which is also analogous to modern predators like bears and canids (Joeckel, 1990). Indeed, going off such teeth alone, it is clear that Archaeotherium is far more predatory than expected of an ungulate. However, the real stars of the show, the teeth that truly betray the predatory nature of these ungulates, are the premolars. Perhaps the most carnivore-like teeth in the entelodont’s entire tooth row, the premolars of Archaeotherium, particularly the anterior premolars, are laterally compressed, somewhat conical in shape, and are weakly serrated to bear a cutting edge, giving them a somewhat carnivorous form and function of shearing and slicing (Effinger, 1998). Most strikingly of all, the premolars of Archaeotherium bear unique features similar not to modern herbivores, but to durophagous carnivores like hyenas, particularly apical wear patterns, highly thickened enamel, “zigzag-shaped” enamel prism layers (Hunter-Schraeger bands) on the premolars which is also seen in osteophagous animals like hyenas, and an interlocking premolar interface wherein linear objects (such as bones) inserted into jaws from the side would be pinned between the premolars and crushed (Foss, 2001). Taken together, these features do not suggest a diet of grass or vegetation like other ungulates. Rather, they suggest a far more violent diet, one including flesh as well as hard, durable foods, particularly bone. All in all, the evidence is clear. Archaeotherium and other entelodonts, unlike the rest of their artiodactyl kin, were not the passive herbivores as we envision ungulates today. Rather, they were willing, unrepentant meat-eaters that had a taste for flesh as well as foliage.
Of course, even with such lines of evidence, its hard to conclude that Archaeotherium was a true predator. After all, its wide gape and durophagous teeth could have just as easily been used for scavenging or even to eat tough plant matter such as seeds or nuts, as in peccaries and pigs, which themselves share many of the same adaptations as Archaeotherium, include the more carnivorous ones (e.g. the wide gape, using the canines as an occlusal guide, etc.). How exactly do we know that these things were veritable predators and not pretenders to the title. To this end, there is yet one last piece of evidence, one that puts on full display the predatory prowess of Archaeotherium —evidence of a kill itself. Found within oligocene-aged sediment in what is now Wyoming, a collection of various fossil remains was found, each belonging to the ancient sheep-sized camel Poebrotherium, with many of the skeletal remains being disarticulated and even missing whole hindlimbs or even entire rear halves of their body. Tellingly, many of the remains bear extensive bite marks and puncture wounds across their surface. Upon close examination, the spacing and size of the punctures leave only one culprit: Archaeotherium. Of course, such an event could still have been scavenging; the entelodonts were consuming the remains of already dead, decomposed camels, explaining the bite marks. What was far more telling, however, was where the bite marks were found. In addition bite marks being found on the torso and lumbar regions of the camels, various puncture wounds were found on the skull and neck, which were otherwise uneaten. Scavengers rarely feast on the head to begin with; there is very little worthwhile meat on it besides the brain, cheek-muscles and eyes, and even if they did feed on the skull and neck, they would still eat it wholesale, not merely bite it and then leave it otherwise untouched. Indeed, it was clear that this was no mere scavenging event. Rather than merely consuming these camels, Archaeotherium was actively preying upon and killing them, dispatching them via a crushing bite to the skull or neck before dismembering and even bisecting the hapless camels with their powerful jaws to preferentially feast on their hindquarters (likely by swallowing the hindquarters whole, as the pelvis of Poebrotherium was coincidentally the perfect width for Archaeotherium to devour whole), eventually discarding the leftovers in meat caches for later consumption (Sundell, 1999). With this finding, such a feat of brutality leaves no doubt in ones mind as to what the true nature of Archaeotherium was. This was no herbivore, nor was it a simple scavenger. This was an active, rapacious predator, the most powerful in its entire ecosystem.
Indeed, with such brutal evidence of predation frozen in time, combined with various dental, cranial, and post cranial adaptations of this formidable animal, it’s possible to paint a picture of how this formidable creature lived. Though an omnivore by trade, willing and able to feast on plant matter such as grass, roots and tubers, Archaeotherium was also a wanton predator that took just about any prey it wanted. Upon detecting its prey, it approached its vicim from ambush before launching itself at blazing speed. From there, its cursorial, hoofed legs, used by other ungulates for escape predation, were here employed to capture prey, carrying it at great speeds as it caught up to its quarry. Having closed the distance with its target, it was then that the entelodont brought its jaws to bear, grabbing hold of the victim with powerful jaws and gripping teeth to bring it to a screeching halt. If the victim is lucky, Archaeotherium will then kill it quickly with a crushing bite to the skull or neck, puncturing the brain or spinal cord and killing its target instantly. If not, the victim is eaten alive, torn apart while it’s still kicking, as modern boars will do today. In any case, incapacitated prey are subsequently dismantled, with the entelodont using its entire head and heavily-muscled necks to bite into and pull apart its victim in devastating “puncture-and pull’ bites (Foss, 2001). Prey would then finally be consumed starting at the hindquarters, with not even the bones of its prey being spared. Such brutality, though far from clean, drove home a singular truth: that during this time, ungulates were not just prey, that they were not the mere “predator-fodder” we know them as today. rather, they themselves were the predators themselves, dominating as superb hunters within their domain and even suppressing clades we know as predators today, least of all the carnivorans. Indeed, during this point in time, the age of the carnivorous ungulates had hit their stride, and more specifically, the age of entelodonts had begun.
Of course, more so than any other entelodont, Archaeotherium took to this new age with gusto. Archaeotherium lived from 35-28 million years ago during the late Eocene and early Oligocene in a locality known today as the White River Badlands, a fossil locality nestled along the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains. Though a chalky, barren landscape today, during the time of Archaeotherium, the White River Badlands was a swamp-like floodplain crisscrossed with rivers and interspersed with by a mosaic of forests concentrated around waterways, open woodlands and open plains. As with most ecosystems with such a lush disposition, this locale teemed with life, with ancient hornless rhinos, small horse-like hyracodonts and early camels roaming the open habitats while giant brontotheres, small early horses and strange, sheep-like ungulates called merycoidodonts (also known as “oreodonts”) dwelled within the dense forests. Within this locale, Archaeotherium stalked the open woodlands and riparian forests of its domain. Here, it acted as a dominant predator and scavenger across is territory, filling a niche similar to modern grizzly bears but far more predatory. Among its preferred food items would be plant matter such as roots, foliage and nuts, but also meat in the form of carrion or freshly caught prey. In this respect, smaller ungulates such as the fleet-footed camel Poebrotherium, a known prey item of Archaeotherium, would have made a for choice prey, as its small size would make it easy for Archaeotherium to dispatch with its powerful jaws, while the entelodonts swift legs gave it the speed necessary to keep pace with its agile prey.
However, the entelodont didn’t have such a feast all to itself. Just as the badlands teemed with herbivores, so too did it teem with rival predators. Among their ranks included fearsome predators such as Hyaenodon, a powerful, vaguely dog-like predator up to the size of wolves (as in H. horridus) or even lions (as in the Eocene-aged H. megaloides, which was replaced by H. horridus during the Oligocene). Armed with a massive head, fierce jaws and a set of knife-like teeth that could cut down even large prey in seconds, these were some of the most formidable predators on the landscape. There were also the nimravids, cat-like carnivorans that bore saber-teeth to kill large prey in seconds, and included the likes of the lynx-sized Dinictis, the leopard-sized Hoplophoneus and even the jaguar-sized Eusmilus. Furthermore, there were amphicyonids, better known as the bear-dogs. Though known from much larger forms later on in their existence, during the late Eocene and Oligocene, they were much smaller and acted as the “canid-analogues” of the ecosystem, filling a role similar to wolves or coyotes. Last but not least, there were the bathornithid birds, huge cariamiform birds related to modern seriemas but much larger, which filled a niche similar to modern seriemas or secretary birds, albeit on a much larger scale. Given such competition, it would seem that Archaeotherium would have its hands full. However, things are not as they appear. For starters, habitat differences would mitigate high amounts of competition, as both Hyaenodon and the various nimravids occupy more specialized ecological roles (being a plains-specialist and forest-specialist, respectively) than did Archaeotherium, providing a buffer to stave off competition: More importantly, however, none of the aforementioned predators were simply big enough to take Archaeotherium on. During the roughly 7 million years existence of Archaeotherium, the only carnivore that matched it in size was H. megaloides, and even that would have an only applied to average A. mortoni individuals, not to the much larger, bison-sized “Megachoerus” individuals. The next largest predator at that point would be the jaguars-sized Eusmilus (specifically E. adelos) which would have only been a bit more than half the size of even an average A. mortoni. Besides that, virtually every other predator on the landscape was simply outclassed by the much larger entelodont in terms of size and brute strength. As such, within its domain, Archaeotherium had total, unquestioned authority, dominating the other predators in the landscape and likely stealing their kills as well. In fact, just about the only threat Archaeotherium had was other Archaeotherium, as fossil bite marks suggest that this animal regularly and fraglantly engaged in intraspecific combat, usually through face-biting and possibly even jaw-wrestling (Effinger, 1998; Tanke & Currie, 1998). Nevertheless, it was clear that Archaeotherium was the undisputed king of the badlands; in a landscape of hyaenodonts and carnivorans galore, it was a hoofed ungulate that reigned supreme.
However, such a reign would not last. As the Eocene transitioned into the Eocene, the planet underwent an abrupt cooling and drying phase known as Eocene-Oligocene Transition or more simply the Grande Coupure. This change in climate would eliminate the sprawling wetlands and river systems that Archaeotherium had been depending on, gradually replacing it with drier and more open habitats. To its credit, Archaeotherium did manage to hang on, persisting well after the Grand-Coupure had taken place, but in the end the damage had been done; Archaeotherium was a dead-man-walking. Eventually, by around 28 million years ago, Archaeotherium would go extinct, perishing due to this change in global climate (Gillham, 2019). Entelodonts as a whole would persist into the Miocene, producing some of their largest forms ever known in the form of the bison-sized Daeodon (which was itself even more carnivorous than Archaeotherium), however they too would meet the same fate as their earlier cousins. By around 15-20 million years ago, entelodonts as a whole would go extinct. However, while the entelodonts may have perished, this was not the end of carnivorous ungulates as a whole. Recall that the cetacodontamorphs, the lineage of artiodactyls that produced the entelodonts, left behind two living descendants. The first among them were the hippos, themselves fairly frequent herbivores. The second of such lineage, however, was a different story. Emerging out of South Asia, this lineage of piscivorous cetacodontamorphs, in a an attempt to further specialize for the fish-hunting lifestyle, began to delve further and further into the water, becoming more and more aquatic and the millennia passed by. At a certain point, these carnivorous artiodactlys had become something completely unrecognizable from their original hoofed forms. Their skin became hairless and their bodies became streamlined for life in water. Their hoofed limbs grew into giant flippers for steering in the water and their previously tiny tails became massive and sported giant tail flukes for aquatic propulsion. Their noses even moved to the tip of their head, becoming a blowhole that would be signature to this clade as a whole. Indeed, this clade was none other than the modern whales, themselves derived, carnivorous ungulates that had specialized for a life in the water, and in doing so, became the some of the most dominant aquatic predators across the globe for millions of years. Indeed, though long gone, the legacy of the entelodonts and of predatory ungulates as a whole, a legacy Archaeotherium itself had helped foster, lives on in these paragons of predatory prowess, showing that the ungulates are more than just the mere “prey” that they are often made out to be. Moreover, given the success that carnivorous ungulates had enjoyed in the past and given how modern omnivorous ungulates like boar dabble in predation themselves, perhaps, in the distant future, this planet may see the rise of carnivorous ungulates once again, following in the footsteps left behind by Archaeotherium and the other predatory ungulates all those millions of years ago.

I’m a college student so wanting to eat well on a tight budget in america is hard, especially when I want to eat sustainably and ethically at the same time. Mussels are one of the few animal-based proteins that are really sustainable and also great from an animal ethics point of view, cheap, and extremely tasty! I’m so surprised so few people like to eat them!
When I found the Aldi frozen Mussels in their natural juices for $3.25, I was delighted as I was 1000 miles away from any ocean and was excited to try out something new! The ingredients being so cheap and value for money made me really pleased with the result. A great meal for $5!
Final result!
Ingredients:

• Arborio or Carnaroli Rice
  
• Onion (i substituted with 1 clove of garlic as i’m moving out and that’s what i had left in my pantry)
  
• Extra Virgin Olive Oil
  
• Mussels (Aldi pre cooked and frozen in my case)
  
• Fish Stock (only had chicken stock in my case)
  
• Parsley (chopped)
  
• Butter
  
• White wine
  

Recipe:

1. If using fresh mussels, clean them by putting them in salt water and allowing them to flush out sand and dirt. Boil them in salted water until shells open and discard mussels that don’t open. Save the mussel water to use later.
   
2. If using pre cooked frozen mussels, heat the mussels in a pan until all the ice melts. Save the juice from the melted ice. For both methods remove most of the mussels from the shell and put aside.
   
3. Meanwhile, chop onion or mince garlic very finely, smaller than size of rice grain.
   
4. Heat onion or garlic with extra virgin olive oil in steel pot or pan, then pour in rice grains to toast.
   
5. As rice becomes more transparent, add 2-3oz of white wine, and let it evaporate.
   
6. As white wine disappears, add in mussel stock, stirring throughout. Continue adding more stock as liquid disappears gradually, one ladle at a time. Switch to fish stock as mussel stock runs out.
   
7. When risotto rice becomes al dente, switch off heat, and make sure there is slightly more liquid than what is finally desired.
   
8. Mix in butter, maybe 1.5-2tbsp and shake pot vigorously to cream. Taste to decide if more seasoning is required.
   
9. Plate and serve.
   

MAY 14th, 2024~Tariffs Are Coming For Critical Minerals In US

Tariffs Are Coming For Critical Minerals In US the deep dive

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US President Joe Biden recently unveiled a series of measures directed for an increase in tariffs on $18 billion worth of imports from China. This directive, made under Section 301 of the Trade Act of 1974, is aimed “to protect American workers and businesses” from the adverse effects of “China’s unfair trade practices,” including technology transfer and intellectual property violations, as well as market flooding with artificially low-priced exports.
As part of this initiative, tariffs on critical minerals and components vital for the electric vehicle (EV) industry and clean energy sectors will see substantial hikes. Beginning in 2024, the tariff rate on lithium-ion EV batteries and battery parts will rise from 7.5% to 25%. By 2026, tariffs on lithium-ion non-EV batteries and natural graphite will also increase to 25%. Additionally, certain other critical minerals will face a tariff increase from zero to 25% starting in 2024.
These measures align with Biden’s broader economic strategy, encapsulated in the Investing in America agenda, which the White House has already boasted to have spurred “more than $860 billion in business investments” across future-focused industries such as EVs, clean energy, and semiconductors. This agenda is further supported by legislative frameworks like the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law, CHIPS and Science Act, and Inflation Reduction Act.
Currently, China dominates over 80% of specific segments in the EV battery supply chain, especially in critical minerals mining, processing, and refining. This concentration poses significant risks to U.S. supply chain resilience and national security, prompting the Biden administration to invest nearly $20 billion in grants and loans to expand domestic production capacity for advanced batteries and battery materials. The Inflation Reduction Act also offers tax credits to stimulate investments in U.S.-based battery production.
In connection, Biden has launched the American Battery Materials Initiative to secure a reliable supply chain for batteries and their components, employing a comprehensive governmental approach to build domestic industrial strength.
Some observers note that this law could further exacerbate the inflation situation. “Not only are we killing fossil fuel investment. But we’re making the green energy transition even more expensive,” said industry observer Brandon Beylo on X, adding to highlight that “the US doesn’t have domestic infrastructure to pick up the slack.”

MAY 14th, 2024,~TARIFFS ON CHINESE EVS, CRITICAL MINERALS

Biden Raises Tariffs On Chinese EVs, Critical Minerals (fordauthority.com)

Biden Raises Tariffs On Chinese EVs, Critical Minerals (fordauthority.com)In recent months, more than one Ford executive – including CEO Jim Farley himself – have expressed concerns about the possibility that cheap Chinese EVs may wind up making it to U.S. soil, flooding the market and making life quite difficult for domestic companies like The Blue Oval. While Ford continues to work on developing its own low-cost EV platform and consumers admit they’d be willing to buy Chinese EVs if they’re cheaper than American-made ones, many politicians are also calling for those vehicles to be banned from U.S. soil, and Mexico recently took steps to prevent that from happening, too. The Biden Administration has been mulling its options for months now, and has long been expected to at least raise tariffs on Chinese EVs – and now, that’s precisely what has happened.
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Additionally, the Biden Administration will also move to increase the tariff rate on EV batteries and the raw materials that are used in their construction. Lithium-ion batteries will get a tariff rate boost from 7.5 percent to 25 percent in 2024, while others will jump to 25 percent in 2026. Battery components will get an increase from 7.5 percent to 25 percent this year as well, while natural graphite and permanent magnets will increase from zero to 25 percent in 2026 and certain other critical minerals will go from zero to 25 percent in 2024.

MAY 14th 2024, ~Biden to increase tariffs on $18 billion in Chinese imports in a new warning to Beijing:

Biden to increase tariffs on $18 billion in Chinese imports in a new warning to Beijing CNN Politics

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Washington — is increasing tariffs on $18 billion in Chinese imports across a handful of sectors deemed strategic to national security – an attempt to cripple Beijing’s development of critical technologies and instead prioritize US production.
The increases will apply to imported steel and aluminum, legacy semiconductors, electric vehicles, battery components, critical minerals, solar cells, cranes and medical products. The new tariff rates – which range from 100% on electric vehicles, to 50% for solar components, to 25% for all other sectors – will take place over the next two years.
“China’s using the same playbook it has before to power its own growth at the expense of others,” said Lael Brainard, director of the White House National Economic Council. “China’s simply too big to play by its own rules.”
Biden’s predecessor, former President Donald Trump, enacted a sweeping tariff program on $300 billion in Chinese imports during his administration, drawing authority from a provision in US trade law that allows tariffs to be used to stifle competition that would threaten national security interests. That same trade law also requires the effectiveness of such tariff programs to be evaluated every four years, and the Biden administration decision is the result of that study. CNN previously reported on the forthcoming changes.
White House officials said they also redrew the parameters of the program to reflect the Biden administration’s policy priorities, most notably the transition to clean energy.
“China can’t be the only country that produces clean technology for the world we need,” a senior administration official said. “We need diversified, not concentrated, production of our most critical goods and technologies. … That’s the kind of dynamic we think will produce resilient supply chains and clean technology.”
Electric vehicles imported from China will see their tariffs more than quadrupled from 27.5% to 100% – a policy lever meant to challenge Beijing’s practice of encouraging aggressively low pricing by domestic EV manufacturers while levying a 40% tariff on US car imports. Chinese manufacturer BYD’s Seagull electric vehicle retails for roughly $10,000, a fraction of what rival American products cost.
“It was important to have a large enough step-up in the tariffs to ensure that we try to level the playing field,” a second senior administration official said.
Beijing has been known to introduce costly counterpunches. Chinese foreign ministry spokesperson Wang Wenbin told reporters Tuesday that China opposes “the unilateral imposition of tariffs which violate (World Trade Organization) rules, and will take all necessary actions to protect its legitimate rights.”
After Trump unveiled his wide-ranging tariff policy, China slapped tariffs on $101.4 billion in US exports, retaliation that the Brookings Institute estimated affected 294,000 American export-related jobs.
The White House has declined to speculate on how Beijing may hit back now. Officials have pointed to parallel investigations by partners in Europe, Brazil and Turkey as bolstering their position.
“China is producing [goods] at a rate and with a trajectory that’s far in excess of any plausible estimate of global demand,” the first senior administration official said.
Treasury Secretary Janet Yellen and Secretary of State Antony Blinken each raised that point with Chinese counterparts during formal visits to the country in April. Administration officials discussed releasing the changes in April to set the stage for a tariff speech Biden delivered mid-month, but ultimately held off to preserve the diplomatic visits, according to two sources familiar with the matter.
On April 17, Biden spoke at the United Steelworkers headquarters in Pittsburgh, calling for a tripling of tariffs Trump placed on certain steel and aluminum products imported from China, and a new investigation into unfair shipbuilding practices. The Chinese government, Biden argued, is providing state money to Chinese steel companies to make more steel than the economy demands, pushing down the price and making it impossible for other companies to compete.

“They’re not competing,” Biden said of China. “They’re cheating.”

It’s a message that plays favorably across the so-called blue wall, the handful of Midwest manufacturing-heavy states that will be critical for either candidate during an election where trade will once again figure prominently.
It played less favorably across the Pacific, with China’s Ministry of Commerce accusing the US of “false accusations” and “wrong practices.”
In a separate executive order issued on Monday, Biden forced MineOne, a Chinese-backed cryptocurrency mining company, to sell its land near the Francis E. Warren Air Force Base in Wyoming. The order said MineOne’s close proximity to the Air Force base raises national security risks due to the company’s use of “specialized and foreign-sourced equipment potentially capable of facilitating surveillance and espionage activities.”
The decision comes amid recent attempts by Washington to limit Chinese companies’ influence on US consumers and national security, especially ahead of the 2024 presidential elections in November.

MAY 14th, 2024 ~Australia to invest $15 billion in renewable energy, critical minerals:

Australia to invest $15 billion in renewable energy, critical minerals Reuters

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SYDNEY, May 14 (Reuters) - The Australian government on Tuesday announced a A$22.7 billion ($15.0 billion) package to boost domestic manufacturing and renewable energy as the country seeks to reduce its reliance on foreign suppliers for key technologies. Details of the Future Made in Australia package announced in the government's annual budget included billions in subsidies for the emerging critical minerals and clean energy industries and efforts to reduce red tape for investors in the sector.
The spending will be made over the next decade and comes as major economies invest billions to support clean energy projects and compete with China in manufacturing electric vehicles and semiconductors, seen as vital for prosperity and national security. Australian Treasurer Jim Chalmers said the budget invested in the country's ambitions to become a "renewable energy superpower". "The world is committed to net zero by 2050," Chalmers said in his budget speech. "This will demand the biggest transformation in the global economy since the industrial revolution."
The package will introduce tax incentives worth A$7 billion for the processing and refining of 31 critical minerals and A$6.7 billion for renewable hydrogen production from the fiscal year ending June 2028 to the 2039-40 fiscal year. Additionally, A$1.5 billion will support investment in the domestic production of solar panels and the battery supply chain. While Australian factories enjoy close proximity to essential raw materials used in production, they have for decades struggled to compete globally due to high labour costs and distance from major international markets.
Australia wants to build a battery chemicals industry to reap more value from its mineral wealth, but the nickel sector is facing thousands of job cuts after a jump in Indonesian supply saw prices plunge. Earlier this year, Prime Minister Anthony Albanese's government classified nickel as a "critical mineral", allowing the local industry access to billions of dollars in cheap government loans.

FORM YOUR OWN OPINIONS & CONCLUSIONS ABOVE:

Should be interesting for U.S. Critical Minerals & Mining operations, U.S. Automakers like Stellantis & other industries like U.S. Steel & Aluminum as the playing field continues to even out! Bodes Well for Niocorp & everything they will produce once FINANCED!
FULL STEAM AHEAD!
Chico

Art by Bob Nicholls
Nowadays, when we envision the words “prey,” among modern mammalian fauna, few taxa come to mind as quickly as the hoofed mammals, better known as the ungulates. Indeed, for the better part of their entire evolutionary history, the ungulates have become entirely indistinguishable from the term “prey.” Across their two major modern branches, the artiodactyls (the “even-toed ungulates,” such as bovids, pigs, deer, hippos and giraffes) and the perissodactyls (the “odd-toed ungulates,” including horses, rhinos and tapir), the ungulates too have created an empire spanning nearly every continent, establishing themselves as the the dominant herbivores throughout their entire range. However, as a price for such success, their lot as herbivores have forced them into an unenviable position: being the food for the predators. Indeed, throughout the diets of most modern predators, ungulates make up the majority, if not the entirety, of their diet, becoming their counterparts in this evolutionary dance of theirs. They have become the lamb to their wolf, the zebra to their lion, the stag to their tiger. If there is a predator in need of lunch, chances are that there is an ungulate there to provide it. Of course, such a dynamic is not necessarily a recent innovation. For the last 15-20 million years, across much of the world, both new and old, the ungulates have served as prey for these predators through it all. Over the course of whole epochs, these two groups have played into these roles for millions of years, coevolving with each other in an eons-long game of cat-and-mouse. The shoes they fill are not new, but have existed for ages, and within their niches they have cultivated their roles to perfection. Indeed, with such a tenured history, it seems hardly surprising the ungulates are wholly inseparable from the terms “prey,” itself.
However, while this is the case now, as it has been for the last 15-20 million years, go back far enough, and we see that this dynamic is not as set in stone as we would think. Indeed, back during the Eocene and Oligocene, during the very earliest days of age of mammals, things were very different for the ungulates. While today they are considered little more than food for modern predators, during these olden days, the ungulates weren’t quite so benign. In fact, far from being fodder for top predators, the ungulates had turned the tables, instead becoming top predators themselves. Indeed, though nearly unheard of today, throughout much of the Eocene and Oligocene, carnivorous ungulates thrived in abundance, developing specializations for catching large prey and establishing themselves as top predators that competed alongside the more traditional carnivores, and even dominating them in some instances. Given such success, it’s no wonder that multiple such clades had arisen during this time. Such predators included the arctocyonids, a lineage of (ironically) hoof-less ungulates with large jaws and sharp teeth for capturing large prey. There were also the mesonychians, a lineage of dog-like ungulates with massive skulls and jaws that allowed them to reign as the top predator across much of the Eocene.
However, among these various lineages, one stands stands out among the rest, by far. Arising during the Eocene, this lineage, though superficially resembling modern pigs, hailed from one an ancient lineage of artiodactyls far removed from swine or most other ungulates in general, with few close relatives alive today. Through perhaps not the most predatory of the bunch, it was among the most formidable, as their superficially pig-like appearance came with giant predatory jaws and teeth unlike anything from the modern era. And of course, as if all of that wasn’t enough, this lineage also went on to earn arguably one of the most badass nicknames of any lineage of mammals, period. These predators, of course, were the entelodonts, a.k.a the “hell-pigs.” More so than any other predatory ungulate lineage, these formidable ungulates were the ones to turn the current paradigm upside down, becoming some of the largest and most dominant carnivores in their landscape, even with (and often in spite of) the presence of more traditional predators. Through impressive size, fearsome teeth and sheer tenacity, these animals became the top dogs of their time, ruling as behemoth-kings of their Paleogene kingdoms, domineering all comers, and throughout the ranks, one entelodont in particular demonstrated such dominance the best. Though not the largest or most powerful of their kind, it is one of the most iconic, being among the most well-known members of its lineage to date. Moreover, this enteledont also has some of the most complete life histories ever seen out of this clade, with its brutality and predatory prowess being displayed in the fossil record in a way seen in no other member of its kind. More than anything else, however, it was this predator that best turned the notion of “ungulates being prey” on its head, living in an environment that bore some of the largest carnivoran hypercarnivores to date and still reigning as the undisputed top predator of its domain. This fearsome beast was none other than Archaeotherium, icon of the entelodonts, terror of the Oligocene American west and undisputed king of the White River badlands.
The rise of Archaeotherium (and of entelodonts in general) is closely tied to the ascendancy of carnivorous ungulates as a whole, one of the earliest evolutionary success stories of the entire Cenozoic. Having become their own derived clade since the late Cretaceous, the ungulates were remarkably successful during the early Paleogene, as they were among the first mammalian clades to reach large sizes during those early days after the non-avian dinosaurs had gone extinct. As such, it was with incredible swiftness that, as the Paleogene progressed, the ungulates swooped upon the various niches left empty by the K-Pg mass extinction that killed the dinosaurs. This of course included the herbivorous niches we would know them for today, but this also included other, much more carnivore roles. Indeed, early on during the Paleogene, it was the ungulates that first seized the roles of large mammalian predators, becoming some the earliest large mammalian carnivores to ever live, well before even the carnivorans. Such predators included the arctocyonids, a lineage of vaguely dog-like, hoof-less ungulates with robust jaws and sharpened teeth that acted as some of earliest large carnivores of the Paleocene, with genera such as Arctocyon mumak getting up to the size of big cats. Even more prolific were the mesonychids. More so than what pretty much any other lineage of predator, it was the mesonychids that would stand out as the earliest dominant predators of the early Cenozoic. Growing up to the size of bears and with enormous, bone-crushing jaws, the mesonychids were among the most powerful and successful predators on the market at that time, with a near-global range and being capable of subjugating just about any other predator in their environments. Indeed, they, along with other carnivorous ungulates (as well as ungulates in general), were experiencing a golden age during this time, easily being the most prolific predators of the age. Given such prevalence, it should be no surprise that there would be yet another lineage of predatory ungulates would throw their hat into the ring, and by early Eocene, that contender would none other than the entelodonts.
The very first entelodonts had arisen from artiodactyl ancestors during the Eocene epoch, at a time when artiodactyls were far more diverse and bizarre than they are now. Through today known from their modern herbivorous representatives such as bovines, deer, and antelope, during the Paleocene and Eocene, the artiodacyls, as with most ungulates of that time, were stronger and far more predaceous, particularly when it came to one such clade of artiodactyls, the cetacodontamorphs. Only known today from hippos and another group of artiodactyls (one which will become relevant later), the cetacodantomorphs emerged out of Asia around 55 million years ago, at around the same time that artiodactyls themselves had made their debut. These animals included the first truly predatory artiodactyls, with many of them possessing large skulls with powerful jaws and sharp, predatory teeth. Among their ranks included animals as puny as Indohyus, a piscivorous artiodactyl the size of a cat, to as formidable as Andrewsarchus, a giant, bison-sized predator often touted as one of the largest predatory mammals to ever live. Given such a predatory disposition, it wouldn’t be long until this clade produced a lineage of truly diverse, truly successful predators, and by around 40 million years ago, that is exactly what they did, as it was at that time that the entelodonts themselves first emerged. From their Asian homeland, the entelodonts spread across the world, spreading through not only most of Eurasia but also colonizing North America as well, with genera such as Brachyhyops being found across both continents. Here, in this North American frontier, the entelodonts began to diversify further, turning into their most successful and formidable forms yet, and it was around the late Eocene and early Oligocene that Archaeotherium itself had entered the scene.
Just from a passing glance at Archaeotherium, it is clear how exactly it (as well as the other entelodonts) earned the nickname of “hell-pigs.” It was a bruiser for starters; its body bore a robust, pig-like physique, with prominent neural spines and their associated musculature forming a hump around the shoulder region, similar to the hump of a bison. With such a bulky physique came with it impressive size; the average A. mortoni had a head-body length of roughly 1.6-2.0 m (5.3-6.6 ft), a shoulder height of 1.2 m (4 ft) and a body mass of around 180 kg (396 lb) in weight (Boardman & Secord, 2013; Joeckel, 1990). At such sizes, an adult Archaeotherium the size of a large male black bear. However, they had the potential to get even bigger. While most Archaeotherium specimens were around the size described above, a select few specimens, labeled under the synonymous genus “Megachoerus,” are found to be much larger, with skulls getting up to 66% longer than average A. mortoni specimens (Foss, 2001; Joeckel, 1990). At such sizes and using isometric scaling, such massive Archaeotherium specimens would attained body lengths over 2.5 m (8.2 ft) and would have reached weighs well over 500 kg (1100 lb), or as big as a mature male polar bear. Indeed, at such sizes, it is already abundantly evident that Archaeotherium is a force to be recorded with.
However, there was more to these formidable animals than sheer size alone. Behind all that bulk was an astoundingly swift and graceful predator, especially in terms of locomotion. Indeed, the hoofed feet of Archaeotherium, along with other entelodonts, sported several adaptations that gave it incredible locomotive efficiency, essentially turning it into a speed demon of the badlands. Such adaptations include longer distal leg elements (e.g. the radius and tibia) than their proximal counterparts (e.g. the humerus and femur), fusion of the radius and ulna for increased running efficiency, the loss of the clavicle (collar-bone) to allow for greater leg length, the loss of the acromion to enhance leg movement along the fore-and-aft plane, the loss of digits to reduce the mass of the forelimb, the fusion of the ectocuneiform and the mesocuneiform wrist-bones, among many other such traits (Theodore, 1996) . Perhaps most significant of these adaptations is the evolution of the “double-pulley astragalus (ankle-bone),” a specialized modification of the ankle that, while restricting rotation and side-to-side movement at the ankle-joint, allows for greater rotation in the fore-and-aft direction, thus allowing for more more powerful propulsion from the limbs, faster extension and retraction of the limbs and overall greater locomotive efficiency (Foss, 2001). Of course, such a trait was not only found in entelodonts but in artiodactyls as a whole, likely being a response to predatory pressures from incumbent predatory clades arising at the same time as the artiodactyls (Foss, 2001). However, in the case of the entelodonts, such adaptations were not used for merely escaping predators. Rather, they were used to for another, much more lethal effect…
Such notions are further reinforced by the entelodonts most formidable aspect, none either than their fearsome jaws, and in this respect, Archaeotherium excelled. Both for its size and in general, the head of Archaeotherium was massive, measuring 40-50 cm (1.3-1.6 ft) in length among average A. mortoni specimens, to up to 78 cm (~2.6 ft) in the larger “Megachoerus” specimens (Joeckel, 1990). Such massive skulls were supported and supplemented by equally massive neck muscles and ligaments, which attached to massive neural spines on the anterior thoracic vertebrae akin to a bisons hump as well as to the sternum, allowing Archaeotherium to keep its head aloft despite the skulls massive size (Effinger, 1998). Of course, with such a massive skull, it should come as no surprise that such skulls housed exceptionally formidable jaws as well, and indeed, the bite of Archaeotherium was an especially deadly one. Its zygomatic arches (cheek-bones) and its temporal fossa were enlarged and expanded, indicative of massive temporalis muscles that afforded Archaeotherium astoundingly powerful bites (Joeckel, 1990). This is further augmented by Archaeotherium’s massive jugal flanges (bony projections of the cheek), which supported powerful masseter muscles which enhanced chewing and mastication, as well as an enlarged postorbital bar that reinforced the skull against torsional stresses (Foss, 2001). Last but not least, powerful jaws are supplemented by an enlarged gape, facilitated by a low coronoid process and enlarged posterior mandibular tubercles (bony projections originating from the lower jaw), which provided an insertion site for sternum-to-mandible jaw abduction muscles, allowing for a more forceful opening of the jaw (Foss, 2001). All together, such traits suggest a massive and incredibly fearsome bite, perhaps the most formidable of any animal in its environment.
Of course, none of such traits are especially indicative of a predatory lifestyle. Indeed, many modern non-predatory ungulates, like hippos, pigs and peccaries, also possess large, formidable skulls and jaws. However, in peeling back the layers, it is found there was more to the skull of Archaeotherium that lies in store. Indeed, when inspecting the animal closely, a unique mosaic of features is revealed; traits that make it out to be much more lethal than the average artiodactyl. On one hand, Archaeotherium possessed many traits similar to those of herbivores animals, as is expected of ungulates. For instance, its jaw musculature that allowed the lower jaw of Archaeotherium a full side-to-side chewing motion as in herbivores (whereas most carnivores can only move their lower jaw up and down)(Effinger, 1998). On the other hand, Archaeotherium wielded many other traits far more lethal in their morphology, less akin to a herbivore and far more akin to a bonafide predator. For instance, the aforementioned enlarged gape of Archaeotherium is a bizarre trait on a supposed herbivore, as such animals do not need large gapes to eat vegetation and thus have smaller, more restricted gapes. Conversely, many predatory lineages have comparatively large gapes, as larger gapes allow for the the jaws to grab on to more effectively larger objects, namely large prey animals (Joeckel, 1990).
Such a juxtaposition, however, is most evident when discussing the real killing instruments of Archaeotherium — the teeth. More so than any facet of this animal, the teeth of Archaeotherium are the real stars of the show, showing both how alike it was compared to its herbivores counterparts and more importantly, how it couldn’t be more different. For instance, the molars of Archaeotherium were quite similar to modern herbivores ungulates, in that they were robust, bunodont, and were designed for crushing and grinding, similar in form and function to modern ungulates like peccaries (Joeckel, 1990). However, while the molars give the impression that Archaeotherium was a herbivore, the other teeth tell a very different story. The incisors, for example, were enlarged, sharpened, and fully interlocked (as opposed to the flat-topped incisors seen in herbivores ungulates), creating an incisor array that was seemingly ill-suited for cropping vegetation and much more adept at for gripping, puncturing and cutting (Joeckel, 1990). Even more formidable were the canines. Like the modern pigs from which entelodonts derived their nicknames, the canines of Archaeotherium were sharp and enlarged to form prominent tusk-like teeth, but unlike pigs, they were rounded in cross-section (similar to modern carnivores like big cats, indicating more durable canines that can absorb and resist torsional forces, such as those from struggling prey) and were serrated to form a distinct cutting edge (Effinger, 1998; Joeckel, 1990; Ruff & Van Valkenburgh, 1987). These canines, along with the incisors, interlock to stabilize the jaws while biting and dismantling in a carnivore-like fashion. More strikingly, the canines also seem to act as “occlusal guides,” wherein the canines help align the movement and position of the rear teeth as they come together, allowing for a more efficient shearing action by the rear teeth. This function is seen most prevalently modern carnivores mammals, and is evidenced by the canine tooth-wear, which is also analogous to modern predators like bears and canids (Joeckel, 1990). Indeed, going off such teeth alone, it is clear that Archaeotherium is far more predatory than expected of an ungulate. However, the real stars of the show, the teeth that truly betray the predatory nature of these ungulates, are the premolars. Perhaps the most carnivore-like teeth in the entelodont’s entire tooth row, the premolars of Archaeotherium, particularly the anterior premolars, are laterally compressed, somewhat conical in shape, and are weakly serrated to bear a cutting edge, giving them a somewhat carnivorous form and function of shearing and slicing (Effinger, 1998). Most strikingly of all, the premolars of Archaeotherium bear unique features similar not to modern herbivores, but to durophagous carnivores like hyenas, particularly apical wear patterns, highly thickened enamel, “zigzag-shaped” enamel prism layers (Hunter-Schraeger bands) on the premolars which is also seen in osteophagous animals like hyenas, and an interlocking premolar interface wherein linear objects (such as bones) inserted into jaws from the side would be pinned between the premolars and crushed (Foss, 2001). Taken together, these features do not suggest a diet of grass or vegetation like other ungulates. Rather, they suggest a far more violent diet, one including flesh as well as hard, durable foods, particularly bone. All in all, the evidence is clear. Archaeotherium and other entelodonts, unlike the rest of their artiodactyl kin, were not the passive herbivores as we envision ungulates today. Rather, they were willing, unrepentant meat-eaters that had a taste for flesh as well as foliage.
Of course, even with such lines of evidence, its hard to conclude that Archaeotherium was a true predator. After all, its wide gape and durophagous teeth could have just as easily been used for scavenging or even to eat tough plant matter such as seeds or nuts, as in peccaries and pigs, which themselves share many of the same adaptations as Archaeotherium, include the more carnivorous ones (e.g. the wide gape, using the canines as an occlusal guide, etc.). How exactly do we know that these things were veritable predators and not pretenders to the title. To this end, there is yet one last piece of evidence, one that puts on full display the predatory prowess of Archaeotherium —evidence of a kill itself. Found within oligocene-aged sediment in what is now Wyoming, a collection of various fossil remains was found, each belonging to the ancient sheep-sized camel Poebrotherium, with many of the skeletal remains being disarticulated and even missing whole hindlimbs or even entire rear halves of their body. Tellingly, many of the remains bear extensive bite marks and puncture wounds across their surface. Upon close examination, the spacing and size of the punctures leave only one culprit: Archaeotherium. Of course, such an event could still have been scavenging; the entelodonts were consuming the remains of already dead, decomposed camels, explaining the bite marks. What was far more telling, however, was where the bite marks were found. In addition bite marks being found on the torso and lumbar regions of the camels, various puncture wounds were found on the skull and neck, which were otherwise uneaten. Scavengers rarely feast on the head to begin with; there is very little worthwhile meat on it besides the brain, cheek-muscles and eyes, and even if they did feed on the skull and neck, they would still eat it wholesale, not merely bite it and then leave it otherwise untouched. Indeed, it was clear that this was no mere scavenging event. Rather than merely consuming these camels, Archaeotherium was actively preying upon and killing them, dispatching them via a crushing bite to the skull or neck before dismembering and even bisecting the hapless camels with their powerful jaws to preferentially feast on their hindquarters (likely by swallowing the hindquarters whole, as the pelvis of Poebrotherium was coincidentally the perfect width for Archaeotherium to devour whole), eventually discarding the leftovers in meat caches for later consumption (Sundell, 1999). With this finding, such a feat of brutality leaves no doubt in ones mind as to what the true nature of Archaeotherium was. This was no herbivore, nor was it a simple scavenger. This was an active, rapacious predator, the most powerful in its entire ecosystem.
Indeed, with such brutal evidence of predation frozen in time, combined with various dental, cranial, and post cranial adaptations of this formidable animal, it’s possible to paint a picture of how this formidable creature lived. Though an omnivore by trade, willing and able to feast on plant matter such as grass, roots and tubers, Archaeotherium was also a wanton predator that took just about any prey it wanted. Upon detecting its prey, it approached its vicim from ambush before launching itself at blazing speed. From there, its cursorial, hoofed legs, used by other ungulates for escape predation, were here employed to capture prey, carrying it at great speeds as it caught up to its quarry. Having closed the distance with its target, it was then that the entelodont brought its jaws to bear, grabbing hold of the victim with powerful jaws and gripping teeth to bring it to a screeching halt. If the victim is lucky, Archaeotherium will then kill it quickly with a crushing bite to the skull or neck, puncturing the brain or spinal cord and killing its target instantly. If not, the victim is eaten alive, torn apart while it’s still kicking, as modern boars will do today. In any case, incapacitated prey are subsequently dismantled, with the entelodont using its entire head and heavily-muscled necks to bite into and pull apart its victim in devastating “puncture-and pull’ bites (Foss, 2001). Prey would then finally be consumed starting at the hindquarters, with not even the bones of its prey being spared. Such brutality, though far from clean, drove home a singular truth: that during this time, ungulates were not just prey, that they were not the mere “predator-fodder” we know them as today. rather, they themselves were the predators themselves, dominating as superb hunters within their domain and even suppressing clades we know as predators today, least of all the carnivorans. Indeed, during this point in time, the age of the carnivorous ungulates had hit their stride, and more specifically, the age of entelodonts had begun.
Of course, more so than any other ettelodont, Archaeotherium took to this new age with gusto. Archaeotherium lived from 35-28 million years ago during the late Eocene and early Oligocene in a locality known today as the White River Badlands, a fossil locality nestled along the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains. Though a chalky, barren landscape today, during the time of Archaeotherium, the White River Badlands was a swamp-like floodplain crisscrossed with rivers and interspersed with by a mosaic of forests concentrated around waterways, open woodlands and open plains. As with most ecosystems with such a lush disposition, this locale teemed with life, with ancient hornless rhinos, small horse-like hyracodonts and early camels roaming the open habitats while giant brontotheres, small early horses and strange, sheep-like ungulates called merycoidodonts (also known as “oreodonts”) dwelled within the dense forests. Within this locale, Archaeotherium stalked the open woodlands and riparian forests of its domain. Here, it acted as a dominant predator and scavenger across is territory, filling a niche similar to modern grizzly bears but far more predatory. Among its preferred food items would be plant matter such as roots, foliage and nuts, but also meat in the form of carrion or freshly caught prey. In this respect, smaller ungulates such as the fleet-footed camel Poebrotherium, a known prey item of Archaeotherium, would have made a for choice prey, as its small size would make it easy for Archaeotherium to dispatch with its powerful jaws, while the entelodonts swift legs gave it the speed necessary to keep pace with its agile prey.
However, the entelodont didn’t have such a feast all to itself. Just as the badlands teemed with herbivores, so too did it teem with rival predators. Among their ranks included fearsome predators such as Hyaenodon, a powerful, vaguely dog-like predator up to the size of wolves (as in H. horridus) or even lions (as in the Eocene-aged H. megaloides, which was replaced by H. horridus during the Oligocene). Armed with a massive head, fierce jaws and a set of knife-like teeth that could cut down even large prey in seconds, these were some of the most formidable predators on the landscape. There were also the nimravids, cat-like carnivorans that bore saber-teeth to kill large prey in seconds, and included the likes of the lynx-sized Dinictis, the leopard-sized Hoplophoneus and even the jaguar-sized Eusmilus. Furthermore, there were amphicyonids, better known as the bear-dogs. Though known from much larger forms later on in their existence, during the late Eocene and Oligocene, they were much smaller and acted as the “canid-analogues” of the ecosystem, filling a role similar to wolves or coyotes. Last but not least, there were the bathornithid birds, huge cariamiform birds related to modern seriemas but much larger, which filled a niche similar to modern seriemas or secretary birds, albeit on a much larger scale. Given such competition, it would seem that Archaeotherium would have its hands full. However, things are not as they appear. For starters, habitat differences would mitigate high amounts of competition, as both Hyaenodon and the various nimravids occupy more specialized ecological roles (being a plains-specialist and forest-specialist, respectively) than did Archaeotherium, providing a buffer to stave off competition: More importantly, however, none of the aforementioned predators were simply big enough to take Archaeotherium on. During the roughly 7 million years existence of Archaeotherium, the only carnivore that matched it in size was H. megaloides, and even that would have an only applied to average A. mortoni individuals, not to the much larger, bison-sized “Megachoerus” individuals. The next largest predator at that point would be the jaguars-sized Eusmilus (specifically E. adelos) which would have only been a bit more than half the size of even an average A. mortoni. Besides that, virtually every other predator on the landscape was simply outclassed by the much larger entelodont in terms of size and brute strength. As such, within its domain, Archaeotherium had total, unquestioned authority, dominating the other predators in the landscape and likely stealing their kills as well. In fact, just about the only threat Archaeotherium had was other Archaeotherium, as fossil bite marks suggest that this animal regularly and fraglantly engaged in intraspecific combat, usually through face-biting and possibly even jaw-wrestling (Effinger, 1998; Tanke & Currie, 1998). Nevertheless, it was clear that Archaeotherium was the undisputed king of the badlands; in a landscape of hyaenodonts and carnivorans galore, it was a hoofed ungulate that reigned supreme.
However, such a reign would not last. As the Eocene transitioned into the Eocene, the planet underwent an abrupt cooling and drying phase known as Eocene-Oligocene Transition or more simply the Grande Coupure. This change in climate would eliminate the sprawling wetlands and river systems that Archaeotherium had been depending on, gradually replacing it with drier and more open habitats. To its credit, Archaeotherium did manage to hang on, persisting well after the Grand-Coupure had taken place, but in the end the damage had been done; Archaeotherium was a dead-man-walking. Eventually, by around 28 million years ago, Archaeotherium would go extinct, perishing due to this change in global climate (Gillham, 2019). Entelodonts as a whole would persist into the Miocene, producing some of their largest forms ever known in the form of the bison-sized Daeodon (which was itself even more carnivorous than Archaeotherium), however they too would meet the same fate as their earlier cousins. By around 15-20 million years ago, entelodonts as a whole would go extinct. However, while the entelodonts may have perished, this was not the end of carnivorous ungulates as a whole. Recall that the cetacodontamorphs, the lineage of artiodactyls that produced the entelodonts, left behind two living descendants. The first among them were the hippos, themselves fairly frequent herbivores. The second of such lineage, however, was a different story. Emerging out of South Asia, this lineage of piscivorous cetacodontamorphs, in a an attempt to further specialize for the fish-hunting lifestyle, began to delve further and further into the water, becoming more and more aquatic and the millennia passed by. At a certain point, these carnivorous artiodactlys had become something completely unrecognizable from their original hoofed forms. Their skin became hairless and their bodies became streamlined for life in water. Their hoofed limbs grew into giant flippers for steering in the water and their previously tiny tails became massive and sported giant tail flukes for aquatic propulsion. Their noses even moved to the tip of their head, becoming a blowhole that would be signature to this clade as a whole. Indeed, this clade was none other than the modern whales, themselves derived, carnivorous ungulates that had specialized for a life in the water, and in doing so, became the some of the most dominant aquatic predators across the globe for millions of years. Indeed, though long gone, the legacy of the entelodonts and of predatory ungulates as a whole, a legacy Archaeotherium itself had helped foster, lives on in these paragons of predatory prowess, showing that the ungulates are more than just the mere “prey” that they are often made out to be. Moreover, given the success that carnivorous ungulates had enjoyed in the past and given how modern omnivorous ungulates like boar dabble in predation themselves, perhaps, in the distant future, this planet may see the rise of carnivorous ungulates once again, following in the footsteps left behind by Archaeotherium and the other predatory ungulates all those millions of years ago.

President Henry Martin “Scoop” Jackson

41st President of the United States
Vice President
Nellie Stone Johnson
Secretary of State: Claude Pepper
Secretary of the Treasury: Maurine Neuberger
Secretary of Defense: William Winter
Attorney General: John Tower
Secretary of the Navy: Arleigh Burke
Secretary of the Interior: Edmund Muskie
Secretary of Agriculture: Hubert Humphrey
Secretary of Commerce: Asa Randolph
Secretary of Labor: Leonard Woodcock
Secretary of Education: Jane Jacobs
Secretary of Health & Welfare: John Gardner (Since March 1965)
Speaker of the House: Charles Halleck (Republican, 1965-1967)/Adam Powell Jr (Labor, 1967-)
Pro Tempore: Lyndon Johnson (Labor)

1964 Election Results

Presidential
Liberal candidate John Kennedy receives 115 electoral votes
Margaret Smith received 38.57% of the vote
John Kennedy received 20% of the vote
Henry Jackson received 41.43% of the vote
Jackson defied poll numbers
While polling has consistently showed the election as a close race, almost all polls had the incumbent President, Margaret Smith, winning by 1 or 2 points up until the election. The last poll conducted on October 28th had Smith leading by 1 point, and Kennedy far behind both major candidates. Some have already begun to blame the Liberal Party and Kennedy for stealing moderate voters from another Republican victory. Regardless, The ever-ambitious Senator Scoop Jackson will enter the White House come January 20th.
House Results
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House Results After Liberal Dissolution (1965)
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• The one Independent is Speedy O. Long of Louisiana

Senate Results
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Senate Results After Liberal Dissolution (1965)
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• The one Independent is Russell B. Long of Louisiana

First 100 Days

Revenue Act of 1965
The Revenue Act of 1965 would take a more progressive approach to taxation, increasing income taxes up to 7% in the highest tax bracket; all while lowering income taxes down by 4% for lower income households. The Act would also increase the Social Security Tax to 8%.
House voted 228-207
Senate voted 52-48
Mass Transit Tax Act of 1965
The second Mass Transit Tax Act would lower short range rail and air transport by an average of 5%, while increasing long range rail and air transport by an average of 2%. International flight tickets would be increased as well, by an average of 6%.
House voted 236-199
Senate voted 62-38
Minimum Wage Act of 1965
The long-standing federal Minimum Wage of $0.80/hour has been around since 1949, with no increase on the federal side of things. President Jackson and other Laborites were able to pull their weight and increase the federally-mandated minimum wage to $1.30/hour. Although the Labor Party advocated for a higher hourly wage, others in Congress feared a wage any higher would result in another economic panic following the near-collapse of the National Debt Ceiling a few years prior.
House voted 227-208
Senate voted 52-48
Department of Health Foundation Act of 1965
Founded the Department of Health and Welfare to help administer and regulate various healthcare practices and the distribution of Social Security, medical tax breaks, and more. Though indirectly, Congress soon changes the Executive budget to cut the Department of the Interior's funding by 40%; most of that money going into the new Department of Health and Welfare.
House voted 249-186
Senate voted 64-36
National Environmental and Water Policy Act of 1965 (NEWPA)
Championed heavily by the President and young members of the Labor Party in Congress like Edmund Muskie, NEWPA places greater regulations and laws into place regarding water safety and treatment, water pollution, trash allocation, dump sites, and recycling; unseen since the progressive era of the early 1900s. These regulations are expected to greatly improve the environmental state of decay for decades to come.
House voted 221-214
Senate voted 54-46

Death of former President, Theodore F. Green: May 19, 1966

This morning, former President Theodore Francis Green passed away in his Rhode Island home at the age of 98, marking the oldest President at the time of his death. Green was a member of the Democratic Party and briefly the Anti-Fascist Alliance, taking charge from his previous position as Secretary of State after the sudden assassinations of sitting President Earl Browder and Vice President Upton Sinclair. President Green helped uncover the “Business Plot” orchestrated in part by J.P. Morgan Jr. and Prescott Sheldon Bush Sr, the latter being the father of sitting Texas Congressman George Bush.
President Theodore F. Green led us through the horrors of the second world war after the sudden attack on Pearl Harbor, resigning his post and organizing a special election the year following the conclusion of the war itself. He was instrumental in the foundation of the United Nations and eventual foundation of both NATO and EATO two Presidents later. He was, and still remains a national hero in our hearts. President Henry Jackson, among former Presidents and dignitaries are expected to show up for his public funeral in Providence, Rhode Island. The public has been allowed to pay their respects at his grave site before his proper burial et to take place from May 19 at 9:00 AM to May 20 at 9:00 AM.

Foreign Policy Ventures prior to the 1966 Midterms

Embargo Act of 1965
Supported already by the majority of the country, Scoop Jackson directed Congress to pass a full embargo of all raw and manufactured Cuban goods on entering the United States through any port or checkpoint.
House voted 313-122
Senate voted 76-24
With the law being signed by the President in August that year, he would make a speech in Miami celebrating the passage of the act, glorifying its protections of American, anti-communist goods. Scoop would face some backlash over his anti-communist posturing, as the Labor Party has a small (but noticeable) sect of Communists in their ranks.
The Saigon Summit
In July of 1965, after riots against the French government in Saigon, and the breakout of a guerrilla war in French Cambodia, a summit was called in Saigon to determine the future of the city. President Jackson, President Ho Chi Minh, and President Charles de Gaulle met within the French administrative building to discuss the recent riots in the city and future between Saigon and Vietnam. Although much of Vietnam was granted total independence from French rule in 1950, French Saigon remained a thorn in Vietnam's side. France wished to keep as much of its dying empire as possible, and no one would fight harder at that than Charles de Gaulle himself. President Jackson wished to keep the peace and eventually coerce Vietnam into rejoining EATO.
Talks were messy at times, as yelling could be heard from the chambers the talks were being held in, but the three would come to an agreement. Saigon would be administered by a joint Vietnamese-French government, and policing and law would gradually transition to local and Vietnamese systems. In return, Vietnam would promise to not get itself involved in the Cambodian guerilla war.

1966 Midterms

House Results
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7 Third Party/Independents

• Speedy Long (Louisiana Independent)
• Edward "Ted" Kennedy (Massachusetts Independent)
• deLeppes "Chep" Morrison (Louisiana Independent)
• Spiro Agnew (Maryland Independent)
• Gus Hall (Minnesota Communist League)
• Jarvis Tyner (New York Communist League)
• Charlene Mitchell (California Communist League)

Senate Results
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2 Independents

• Russell Long (Louisiana Independent)
• Edward Brooke (Massachusetts Independent)

Invasion of Saigon

In December 1966, a clash between Vietnamese and French police during a riot led the Vietnamese side of the Saigon Transitional Government to call on Vietnamese military aid. Within hours, the Republic of Vietnam marched into the jointly occupied city. Rumors immediately began amassing that the Saigon police force worked with the Vietnamese government in order to cease Saigon before the transitional period was up. Although these rumors were just that, President Jackson was surely worried when the news hit him the next morning; alongside the French Ambassador asking for an audience with the President.
French Ambassador Hervé Alphand would share with Scoop three things:

1. France intends to treat the invasion of Saigon as an act of war.
2. France is already mobilizing troops to southern Cambodia for a naval invasion of Vietnam.
3. France intends to call on the force of NATO and EATO to defend “France in her hour of need.”

No matter how Jackson tried to argue, Alphand was keen on these points. Jackson would argue that the incident be investigated by the United Nations to determine whether it was an act of war; while Alphand threatened that American delay on the issue could lead to French withdrawal from both NATO and EATO. Jackson, reportedly furious, refused to be threatened by a “dying empire”. He denied meeting with any French foreign dignitary for the time being until they promised to allow the UN for an investigation.
The French response was quick, with France officially leaving both NATO and EATO on December 18, 1966. The French declaration of war and further campaign into Vietnam began on the 20th. With naval and air landings concentrated around Rach Gia, Can Tho, My Tho, Saigon, and Vung Tau, the Second Indochina War began. Although Australia would provide weapon assistance, the other nations within both NATO and EATO held their breath on what to do. France had left the two most powerful military and economic alliances in the world, and President Jackson could not be more angry.

Glasgow Conference of 1967

With the war having gone on for nearly three months, and French military forces having begun to get bogged down by the Vietnamese harsh tactics; Can Tho remained the only major French-held territory in the young Republic. And although Vietnamese war tactics were questionable at best; much of the world was united in believing the French declaration of war was not entirely justifiable; with President Scoop Jackson and General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev at the forefront of organizing peace efforts within and without the UN. Although the United Nations have begun investigations into both the Vietnamese invasion of Saigon and the French declaration of war, they both had gotten bogged down by the surrounding war effort.
It was agreed upon by several major powers to meet in Glasgow with French and Vietnamese delegates to discuss an armistice. The United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and the People’s Republic of China agreed to enforce the following terms:

1. Saigon and surrounding territories that formerly made up the French Vietnam Territory following the 1950 Treaty of Manila shall be ceded to the Republic of Vietnam. Saigon and the surrounding territories shall become a United Nations sponsored demilitarized zone until an official peace treaty between the 5th Republic of France and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.
2. French military and bureaucratic personnel shall be allowed free and safe passage out of the cities of Can Tho and Saigon; sanctioned by the United Nations Peacekeeping Force. The French and Vietnamese governments must release all prisoners of war; sanctioned by the United Nations Peacekeeping Force.
3. Saigon officials implicated in the initial invasion of the city on December 16, 1966 must release all official, personal, and private documents to the United Nations Office of Legal Affairs for investigation.
4. Vietnam must retain its promise from the 1964 Saigon Summit to not aid or abet Cambodian guerilla forces or rebels.
5. All combat between the 5th Republic of France and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam shall cease and abide by the above rules, the United Nations, and Geneva Conventions.

Although both nations had much to say and change in their favor, the above is the final version of the armistice agreed upon by all parties. The armistice paper was signed by:

• President Henry Martin Jackson of the United States
• General Secretary Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev of the Soviet Union
• Prime Minister James Harold Wilson, Baron Wilson of Rievaulx of the United Kingdom
• Chairman Mao Zedong of the People's Republic of China
• Foreign Minister Ernest Charles Lucet of the 5th French Republic
• Foreign Minister Nguyên Duy Trinh of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam

Military Aftermath of the Second Indochina War:

• 57,000 KIA (66% Vietnamese)
• 12,000 MIA (81% French)
• 72,000 WIA (52% French)
• 134,000 Civilians KIA/MIA (89% Vietnamese)

Although the Glasgow Conference was seen as a great triumph of diplomacy between the major powers, Taiwan (the Republic of China) was greatly hindered in its geopolitical influence for the time being. President Jackson had recognized the People’s Republic of China the week prior to the Conference; Communist China would replace Taiwan's spot as a permanent member of the UN Security Council within the month.

The Better Society Plan

Plans drawn up between Pro Tempore Lyndon Johnson, Representative Claude Pepper, and Speaker Adam Powell Jr. would be taken to the President's desk following the first relatively calm year in the administration's history. Although much of the work on marketing the plan would be placed on Scoop himself; Johnson, Pepper, and Powell would act as the main sponsors of each piece in Congress. What would become the beginnings of the “Better Society Plan” would officially pass both houses of Congress throughout mid 1968.
Cheap Food and Housing Act of 1968
A large bill authored primarily by Speaker Adam Powell Jr. and Secretary Hubert Humphrey; the Cheap Food and Housing Act would cover extensive social programs. Although, with weak support in Congress, many Republicans were able to push to soften these programs and add their own agendas on top of them. The final contents of this massive bill were as follows:

1. A federal Food Stamps program would begin and be administered and funded by the Department of Health and Welfare. Certain imported foodstuffs would receive a 15% higher tariff. All American citizens that either fall below or are less than 6% above the poverty line would be eligible for the Food Stamps program.
2. Store-bought meat products will receive price controls to fit the monthly income of the average family. The Federal Government will cut 60% funds toward GMO Agriculture, Meat, Fish, and Poultry research.
3. Houses that take up less than a certain area size will be price capped based county-by-county income. This job is in the hands of State Governments. (Apartments are not covered in this)
4. Housing discrimination shall be made illegal based on identity.

House voted 241-194
Senate voted 53-47
Medical Bill Reduction Act of 1968
This bill was authored by Representative Claude Pepper and Secretary John Gardner in order to fundamentally reduce medical expenses for the youth, elderly, and medically unable. The bill however was weakened significantly by the Republicans in Congress, only allowing for those receiving Social Security benefits to have reduced medical expenses paid for partially by the Department of Health and Welfare; no matter if the recipient is signed on with private insurance or the Public Option.
House voted 220-215
Senate voted 53-47

Apollo 8: Americans on the Moon in November 1968!

Thanks to streamlined efforts by Presidents Dwight Eisenhower and Margaret Smith the past 11 years, NASA and furthermore America were able to place the first men on the moon on November 12, 1967. In a speech made on national television that night in the hour following the conclusion of the live coverage of the moon landing, Scoop Jackson would put much of his thanks on the “Greatest mind our nation has ever had,” referring to Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer. Oppenheimer, since 1961, has been placed in a secondary charge of the Apollo missions and a potential moon landing until his resignation in January 1967 and death the following month. Dr. Oppenheimer's expertise in theory and former President Smith's dedication for space exploration are likely candidates as to the victory America achieved that night.
State of Asia in 1968
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The United Nations has concluded their investigation into the potential legality and coercion in the events leading up to the invasion of Saigon.
“While France has made compelling arguments for the contrary, regarding available documents and other pieces of evidence, the Vietnamese military occupation of Saigon was not a result of coercion, manipulation, embezzlement, bribery, or corruption within the Republic of Vietnam. The invitation of Vietnamese armed forces into the territory limits was done by the legal Vietnamese co-government of said territory, and therefore, is deemed a semi-legal occupation of the city. The United Nations upholds the results of the Glasgow Conference.”

Gearing up for Reelection: A look at Potential Challengers

Notable Republicans that have declared candidacy
Former Vice President, Richard Nixon
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Richard Nixon is back at it with his 4th attempt at a Presidential run, and if he wins the nomination or is selected as a running mate, 3rd attempt on a Presidential ticket. He is generally a moderate, but is definitely the wildcard. Despite his past of losing elections, he is somehow the safest, and perhaps most dangerous, to the Jackson administration.
Governor Ronald Reagan
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The Governor of California has perhaps one of the most charismatic voices in the nation, and is definitely a threat should he receive the Republican nomination. While he is charismatic, he is also the most Conservative of the major players for the Republican nomination. Reagan has instituted a mix of conservative and liberal policy as Governor of California, but has spouted rhetoric like all the former dixiecrats; just without blatant racism. Scoop believes Reagan is not only a credible threat to his Presidency, but also a threat to minority groups nationwide.
“Draft Jack Kennedy” and “Draft Bobby Kennedy”
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Despite neither Kennedy having decided to throw their hat in the ring this year, 1960 and 1964 Presidential candidate John Kennedy has received some support among anti-nixon moderates for the head of the ticket later this year. He has an air of charisma around him, much like his fellow Republican Ronald Reagan, but Kennedy has only commented on the matter stating he is “far too tired” for 3 Presidential runs in a row. The Senator's health is seemingly beginning to fail, as well. Despite the unlikeliness of the matter, Jackson is prepared to deal with Jack Kennedy again if he wins a draft.
Opposed to his older brother, Governor Robert Kennedy has remained Non-Partisan since the fall of the Liberal Party 3 years prior. Bobby has had moderate support from both parties since the beginning of his governorship in 1963. Despite this, and probably with wishes to go against one of his brothers, Bobby Kennedy has denied to run or entertain a draft movement in his name. Scoop has declared Bobby to be of little threat.
Other potential challengers
Senator Russel Long
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The long-serving Senator and son of former President Huey Long has walked the line of conservative, liberal, and progressive support throughout his career. In recent years, he has become more supportive of progressive social policies, and definitely leans economically toward Labor; but his reach across rural southerners matches a more populist approach. Long has already declared his independent candidacy for President. If Nixon isn't one, Long is certainly the most dangerous wildcard if he plays his hand right. Scoop will closely watch him.
View Poll

Do you remember this tweet?
https://preview.redd.it/c13lie7fua0d1.png?width=1196&format=png&auto=webp&s=17daa4737bf878f21124693a16a5f7f2574e1757
If you don’t remember, RC tweeted this meme the moment BBBY hit $4.07. Could the time on the meme “4:07” and tweeting the meme the moment BBBY hit 4.07 be a cohencidence? Yes, knowing RC it was intentional because you will probably have better odds of hitting the lottery than tweeting the meme the moment BBBY trades at 4.07.
Do you remember u/Theorico’s DD https://www.reddit.com/Teddy/comments/1b5eyio/how_could_hudson_bay_capitals_holdings_have/

TLDR;
The delisting of BBBY/BBBYQ on May 3rd from NASDAQ prevented the public from knowing HBC's BBBY/BBBYQ holdings as of June 30th 2023 on August 2023 and on further 13F report dates.
The Chapt 11 Plan provided for a complete cancellation of BBBY/BBBYQ equity interests, and the Plan Administrator indeed requested their deletion from DTC by mid October, thus also preventing the public from knowing HBC's holdings of BBBY/BBBYQ upon their 13F report on mid February 2024.
The ongoing narrative was that HBC had "death spiraled" the company by converting and immediately selling their shares. If by August 2023 it had been known that this was not the case, Retail would have had discovered that HBC was holding a big position on a bankrupted company, so that there must have been much more at play here. This would also may have hindered the company to complete any other still unknown actions related to the change of ownership and the equity distribution of the new surviving entity. Thus, it was then crucial to avoid that at all costs by cutting all possible reporting options of HBC's holdings as depicted above.
Disclaimer: this post assumes that HBC still held BBBYQ. This is an assumption, not yet proved true nor false.

The short swing profit lawsuit against HBC, answers u/Theorico’s assumption that HBC did in fact hold BBBYQ shares.
Here are some of the reasons why I believe HBC is on our side using logic:

• HBC did not dump their shares to the retail and onto the public market. The short interest and borrow fee did not go down until the “At-the-market” financing until late March 2023. If HBC did in fact dumped their shares to the retail, then the short interest and borrow fee would've dropped.
• HBC was able to instantly profit 15% if they exercised their warrants and instantly dumped their ~300mm shares.… So How the fuck did HBC profit $300mm trading BBBY? BBBY "death-spiraled" from $4 to $0.07.

https://preview.redd.it/dnatyh1r0b0d1.png?width=2742&format=png&auto=webp&s=0cc216a56eba87b283e117c5d77cad2c2092b5c1

• HBC is a multi-billion dollar global investment management firm, are you telling me that HBC does not know what Section 16(b) is and risk a lawsuit on a stock that already has an active Section 16(b) lawsuit against Ryan Cohen that everyone, including the apes, know about?

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Now, you’re probably wondering who HBC sold their shares to profit $300 million.
https://preview.redd.it/q0drv7f4wa0d1.png?width=1366&format=png&auto=webp&s=45d103731c080e59098a35cae7fe88b720f60232
There is absolutely no way, HBC could have profited $300mm via short swing trading unless…
HBC sold their ~300m shares privately to an investor who was willing to pay a premium….
I can only think of one hero who is willing to pay more to save the retail ... Warren Icahn.
https://preview.redd.it/7o491287ya0d1.png?width=1198&format=png&auto=webp&s=ca1b00b60445319af6e40ce31f340f5f1bbdaffc
The same CEO who receives $0 salary to run a multi-billion retail store and puts money where his mouth is.
https://preview.redd.it/2qfgw731ya0d1.png?width=1190&format=png&auto=webp&s=7633dbe579172f776f2e16d05eff0799e3b0dd4a
I would like to end this tinfoil with Ryan Cohen's speech to shareholders during GME's annual shareholder meeting in 2023:

Thanks, Mark and hi everyone. I'll speak briefly. My father always told me "talk is cheap, actions speak louder than words". My responsibility is making sure Gamestop is run by managers who treat company money like their own. In corporate America the people in charge, the professional directors and management teams, are not aligned with shareholders. They're always the recipient of stock grants, however they rarely purchase company shares with their own savings. There's a big difference between risk free compensation for showing up and putting a meaningful amount of your own money at risk. As a result, money is wasted, work is delegated, and a lot of time is spent managing to short term expectations and pandering to wall street. I like people who roll up their sleeves and do real work. People guided by principles, not robots who seek to rest and vest. In corporate America there's no shortage of overpaid executives, bad capital allocation, and chronic waste and serial delegators. Much as this behavior is both predictable and reprehensible, it's precisely what creates opportunities. Thank you for being a shareholder.

Looking back, I think it is safe to assume that RC is man of his words. His track record demonstrates his commitment to taking action and making meaningful changes. Just take a look at GameStop's balance sheet and GME's share price now compared to when RC revealed his position and sent his letter to the board in 2020.
In RC we trust.