2023.09.17 01:27 mnagdmor Rhode Island and South Carolina (2 pages) National Merit 2024
2023.06.02 05:09 pikameta Manifest S04E19 "Formation" Episode Discussion
2023.06.02 05:02 pikameta Manifest S04E12 "Bug Out" Episode Discussion
2023.04.19 18:16 ManBearScientist History You Should Know (part 4a): Women in Science
It is certainly a wonderful instance of divine favour — that this poor, ignorant girl should be so blessed, for by reading and application she has arrived to that degree of knowledge as to be in the habit of writing and talking with professors and other clever men on the subject, and they all acknowledge that she understands more of the science than anyone else in this kingdom. - Lady Harriet Silvester, of Mary AnningAnning's father had helped make a living for his family by selling fossils he mined from coastal fossil beds to tourists. But it is Mary Anning who advanced this into a science. Without a doubt, her discoveries of intact and complete skeletons and understanding of the cutting edge in paleontological science helped her spearhead the knowledge in this discipline.
In reply to your request I beg to say that the hooked tooth is by no means new; I believe that M. De la Beche described it fifteen years since in the Geological Transanctions, I am not positive; but I know that I then discovered a specimen, with about a hundred palatal teeth, and four of the hooked teeth, as I have since done several times with different specimens. I had a conversation with Agassiz on this subject; his remark was that they were the teeth by which the fish seized its prey,—milling it afterwards with its palatal teeth. I am only surprised that he has not mentioned it in his work. We generally find the Ichthyodoralites with them*, as well as cartilaginous bones — Mary Anning, April 7, 1839Mary Anning's discoveries, and the work she did behind the scenes in collecting and disseminating information, were pivotal in propelling paleontology into the limelight. William Conybeare, Henry De la Beche, and William Buckland all used her fossil finds and information in their published works which formed the basis of the science.
The [research] idea was her own; no one helped her formulate it, and although she took it to her husband for his opinion she clearly established her ownership of it. She later recorded the fact twice in her biography of her husband to ensure there was no chance whatever of any ambiguity. It [is] likely that already at this early stage of her career [she] realized that... many scientists would find it difficult to believe that a woman could be capable of the original work in which she was involved. — Robert William Reid (1974), Marie CurieCurie's work also established the basis of radiation treatments for cancer. She independently isolated radium. She defined the international standard for radioactive emissions, the curie. Curie also pioneered used radon for sterilizing infected tissue.
I am going to give up the little gold I possess. I shall add to this the scientific medals, which are quite useless to me. There is something else: by sheer laziness I had allowed the money for my second Nobel Prize to remain in Stockholm in Swedish crowns. This is the chief part of what we possess. I should like to bring it back here and invest it in war loans. The state needs it. Only, I have no illusions: this money will probably be lost.
Her areas of expertise include: systems design and software development, enterprise and process modeling, development paradigm, formal systems modeling languages, system-oriented objects for systems modeling and development, automated life-cycle environments, methods for maximizing software reliability and reuse, domain analysis, correctness by built-in language properties, open-architecture techniques for robust systems, full life-cycle automation, quality assurance, seamless integration, error detection and recovery techniques, human-machine interface systems, operating systems, end-to-end testing techniques, and life-cycle management techniques.If Marie Curie could be called the mother of nuclear physics, it is probably accurate to call Margaret Hamilton the mother of software engineering. Robert McMillan’s Wired article, “Her code got humans on the moon – and invented software itself" states: “At MIT she assisted in the creation of the core principles in computer programming…”.
the completion of a series of exertions probably unparalleled either in magnitude or importance in the annals of astronomical labour.Her tombstone inscription reads, "The eyes of her who is glorified here below turned to the starry heavens."
2022.12.25 00:38 Risethewake Decided to take action from my last post on here. Halo Infinite has been hanging out inside my Xbox for the last year and I finally beat it. I’m so sad with the direction the Halo franchise has gone but I still enjoy this game.
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2022.08.21 23:01 spartachilles Summary of President John Purroy Mitchel's First Term (1921-1925) A House Divided Alternate Elections
Cabinet submitted by spartachilles to Presidentialpoll [link] [comments] Vice President: Vacant Secretary of State: Medill McCormick (1921-1924, forced to resign), Raymond Fosdick (1924-1925) Secretary of the Treasury: Henry Bruere (1921-1925) Secretary of War: George E. Chamberlain (1921-1924, retired), Richard M. Hurd (1924-1925) Attorney General: Francis J. Heney (1921-1925) Secretary of the Navy: Bainbridge Colby (1921-1925) Postmaster General: Melville C. Kelly (1921-1925) Secretary of the Interior: Benjamin F. Fridge (1921-1925) Secretary of Education: Kaspar K. Kubli (1921-1925) Secretary of Labor: Ralph M. Easley (1921-1925) Secretary of Agriculture: Alexander Legge (1921-1923, resigned), Harold L. Ickes (1923-1925) An Inauspicious Beginning During the elections of 1920, John Purroy Mitchel was not at the head of any major party ticket, instead serving as the running mate for California Representative Hiram Johnson. However, tragedy struck the nation when President-elect Johnson was assassinated just days before he was able to take office. With no President-elect having died before assuming office, the procedures for Mitchel’s ascension to the presidency were constitutionally ill-defined and only resolved by outgoing Attorney General William H. Lewis, who issued a statement that Mitchel would be officially inaugurated as Vice President first before taking the oath of office as President due to the vacancy. A political unknown outside of New York, where Mitchel had engaged in a fiery campaign to prevent the election of Social Democratic Mayor Morris Hillquit, many expected or perhaps wishfully hoped that Mitchel would be little more than a caretaker president who would at most passively advance the agenda of President-elect Johnson. Such suspicions appeared to be confirmed when Mitchel announced that he would appoint the cabinet that Johnson had already selected and vetted in anticipation of assuming office. However, Mitchel soon moved to assert his independence as a political figure. John Purroy Mitchel taking the Presidential Oath of Office shortly after his inauguration as Vice President. President Mitchel took a keen interest in prosecuting President-elect Johnson’s killer, and personally interceded to marshal local business leaders in California to investigate the matter after local authorities proved resistant to the President’s interference. This bore fruit when a private investigator witnessed John J. McNamara’s drunken confession to the crime, which eventually led to McNamara’s arrest by federal agent William J. Flynn and his later sensational trial. Leading the prosecution was noted anticommunist lawyer Archibald Stevenson, while the defense led was by former Attorney General Clarence Darrow and openly supported by major labor unions and politicians as powerful as Senator Job Harriman of California. The acrimonious trial would weave through multiple defenses, including a claim that Johnson’s home had exploded on its own due to a faulty gas main and a claim that McNamara was exercising his 30th Amendment right to resistance against a collaborationist figure of the dictatorship, before Judge Robert Heberton Terrell finally ruled against McNamara and sentenced him to death. Despite a flood of petitions for clemency from leaders of the labor movement, President Mitchel insisted on McNamara’s execution for his crimes. John J. McNamara, the infamous assassin of President-elect Hiram Johnson. Mitchel’s First Crusade: Syndicalism President Mitchel did not rest easy with McNamara’s conviction. Declaring the assassination to just be part of a wider scheme of anarchist bombings and plotted communist revolution, Mitchel assumed the bully pulpit to fiercely advocate for a three-point platform designed to end such a threat to the American government. The first and perhaps most pronounced point would be a national criminal syndicalism law which would outlaw any and all advocacy for violence, crime, and sabotage to advocate for political or industrial change, with its clear target being the radical Industrial Workers of the World. Secondly, Mitchel called for a significant reform to the immigration laws of the country to implement strict quotas on immigration and outlaw immigration by anarchists or other political radicals, justifying it by launching attacks on so-called “hyphenated Americans” that were supposedly undermining the country as well as more racially charged arguments against Eastern European and Jewish immigrants. Mitchel’s final point would echo the long-time call of the hardliners within his party, the implementation of universal military training and significant reforms to the army to better prepare it to face threats both foreign and domestic. Cartoon criticizing \"hyphenated Americans\", i.e. Americans identifying with an ethnic background such as Irish or German, as \"half Americans\". However, Mitchel would quickly run into serious opposition to his plan within Congress. Leading an alliance of the Social Democratic and Solidarity Parties, Speaker of the House James Peter Warbasse denounced Mitchel’s proposals as an attempt to violate the civil rights of Americans and return the country to military rule. Congress entered into a protracted period of deadlock as Warbasse mounted a campaign of obstructionism not seen since the days of “Czar Hiscock” during the Powderly presidency. As the battle progressed, both sides resorted to increasingly underhanded and personal tactics, with President Mitchel vetoing plans for the construction of monuments to the leaders of the Revolution on its ten-year anniversary and Congress likewise blocking the Federalist Reform initiative to repatriate Grant-era statues of Nelson A. Miles and Theodore Roosevelt to Washington, D.C.. President Mitchel would only further antagonize Congress by making moves perceived as Grantist apologia, including a refusal to offer Glenn E. Plumb a presidential funeral despite the Supreme Court’s judgment that Plumb had been the legal president during the Grant dictatorship. Perhaps worse still would be Mitchel’s granting of amnesty to several high-profile leaders of the dictatorship and the Integralist movement, including Henry Stimson, the administrator of the Grant-era military draft; William Sulzer, the anti-corruption Inspector General; Elihu Root, who had led the Integralist movement in the House; and even Rupert Blue, the Surgeon General who had vied to replace Grant, among many more. Speaker of the House James Peter Warbasse, President Mitchel's principal opponent in Congress during his first two years. Law and Order The midterm elections would provide some relief for the beleaguered President, as although his party had lost significant ground in the House enough cracks had formed in the alliance of his opponents to allow for the election of Edward Fitzsimmons Dunne as Speaker of the House. Aligned with the President on many issues, Dunne was believed to be capable of allowing a more normal Congressional session to proceed. However, such hopes would soon be dashed by developments in the city of Boston. Amid celebrations of May Day, the holiday remembering the Haymarket Massacre and more broadly celebrating the labor movement, labor demonstrators and members of the National Patriot League and American Legions clashed in an episode that would become popularly known as the Battle of Beacon Street. Although intermittent violence had been commonplace between the two groups, the Battle of Beacon Street was on a different scale altogether, resembling open warfare in the streets of Boston. With dozens dead and the Governor of Massachusetts Channing M. Cox slow in marshaling the force of the Massachusetts militia, President Mitchel opted to act first and deployed troops under the command of Brigadier General William Weigel to quell the violence in the city. Although successful in stopping the fighting at the cost of many lives, Mitchel’s deployment of federal troops would come under serious attack as a potential violation of the Posse Comitatus Act, which banned the use of the federal troops for law enforcement purposes. Picture of the demonstrations in Boston before violence broke out on Beacon Street. Thus, rather than the December session of Congress beginning with a productive end to the deadlock that had consumed Mitchel’s term, it began with Congress consumed by debates over impeaching the President. Social Democratic Representative Alfred Wagenknecht of Washington introduced the article of impeachment, centered on an accused abuse of power in violation of the Posse Comitatus Act. With near-universal support of the Social Democratic Party, and universal opposition from the Federalist Reform Party, it would fall upon Solidarity to be the arbiters of Mitchel’s impeachment. Ultimately, the party would in large part support the impeachment on the grounds that Governor Channing M. Cox (a member of Solidarity), had been organizing action to suppress the disorder himself and had opposed the deployment of federal troops. Thus, the article of impeachment narrowly passed the House, and proceeded to trial in the Senate. In tandem with the impeachment proceedings, another movement was brewing among the labor movement to create armed paramilitaries that would act as a counterweight to the National Patriot League and the American Legion. The most enduring of these would become known as the Red Guards, founded by four former commissars and soldiers with a background in leftism: Frank Bohn, Alonzo Watson, Bill Blizzard, and Sid Hatfield. The House impeachment managers would be chiefly led by California Representative Fremont Older, while Mitchel would appoint three New York lawyers later called the “Gang of Three” to represent his defense: Frank Polk, Arthur H. Woods, and Archibald Stevenson, and the trial was presided over by Chief Justice William Howard Taft. The prosecution kept to a simple message that President Mitchel had undoubtedly violated the Posse Comitatus Act with his deployment of federal troops, and that this represented an abuse of his power worthy of his removal from office. Meanwhile, the Gang of Three centered their defense on a piece of legislation that they believed represented a statutory exception to the Posse Comitatus Act: the Insurrection Act of 1807, which provides the President with the power to use federal troops to suppress civil disorder if local officials prove unable or unwilling to suppress it. Governor Channing M. Cox of Massachusetts, the figure at the center of President Mitchel's impeachment controversy. Thus, the central controversy of the trial would be whether Governor Cox had been unable or unwilling to suppress the civil disorder in Boston. The position of the prosecution would be seriously undermined by Cox’s defense when summoned to the stand, wherein he openly admitted to fleeing the city in the midst of the crisis and the Gang of Three expertly exposed his failures in marshaling the Massachusetts militia. However, the results of the final vote still remained in serious doubt thanks to the Federalist Reform Party being in the distinct minority in the Senate chamber. Ultimately, the cross-examination of Cox proved disastrous for the prosecution, and Senator Edwin P. Morrow of Kentucky privately led a group of Solidarity senators to disavow Cox and acquit President Mitchel. However, the result nonetheless remained close, with President Mitchel acquitted by a two-vote margin of 62 in favor of removal and 34 in favor of acquittal. Some believe that several of the votes to acquit may have been adversely affected by threats both open and tacit by the National Patriot League and American Legion to resist Mitchel’s removal with force, with many critical of Mitchel’s neglect to open serious investigations or prosecutions in either organization. However, a narrow acquittal in such a politically charged atmosphere rife with violence hardly settled the matter. While traveling by car with his defense lawyer Frank Polk, Secretary of the Interior Benjamin F. Fridge, and his close associate Arthur Woods, their vehicle stopped for a moment near a rather unassuming elderly man. However, the man’s appearance disguised his true intentions, as he drew a revolver and fired on the President and his entourage. The first bullet grazed the President’s ear, while the second struck Frank Polk in the jaw and dislodged several of his teeth. President Mitchel, who had made a habit of carrying his own weapon ever since the assassination of President-elect Johnson, shortly thereafter drew his own gun and shot back at his would-be assassin. The President managed to strike the man in the arm before Arthur Woods, a former soldier with experience in jiu-jitsu, leapt from the car, tackled the assailant, and pinned him to the ground. Mitchel then made a retreat into the safety of a nearby building, helping the wounded Polk while still brandishing his gun the whole time. The assassination attempt helped Mitchel once again earn some sympathy in the eyes of Congress and the nation, helping to enable a somewhat more productive session of Congress. Meanwhile, the assassin’s unclear motivations fueled wild speculation by the press, with a widely repeated theory blaming “whiskey, poverty, and a weak mentality” and giving new fuel to the national prohibition movement. Illustration of the attempted assassination of President Mitchel. Mitchel’s Second Crusade: Corruption Having a reputation as a municipal reformer, President Mitchel took particular aim at corruption in government throughout his term. To assist him in this, Mitchel assembled a close circle of allies from New York in the mold of President Peabody’s “Brain Trust”. Chief among the so-called “New York Nine” would be Secretary of the Treasury Henry Bruere, while the remaining eight did not hold official positions of power but were given such extensive license by Mitchel that in many ways they were able to circumvent his own cabinet: civil war veteran and law enforcement specialist Arthur Woods, urban planner George McAneny, social reformer Katherine B. Davis, social reformer John A. Kingsbury, businessman Elbert Henry Gary, writer Raymond Fosdick, lawyer Frank Polk, and businessman Bird Sim Coler. Also allowed into Mitchel’s inner circle was Attorney General Francis J. Heney, a critical figure within the administration and a man with a background in prosecuting graft in politics that Mitchel respected. Initially, Mitchel’s efforts against corruption would sit on the backburner in favor of other priorities, but Speaker Warbasse’s sabotage of Mitchel’s proposal for a commission on government corruption and waste would motivate him to approach the issue with renewed fervor. Henry Bruere, Secretary of the Treasury and leader of the so-called \"New York Nine\" forming President Mitchel's inner circle. Mitchel's first offensive would take the shape of investigations of some of his prominent opponents in Congress. Mitchel took particular aim at Senators Albert Young of Pennsylvania and Perry Wilbon Howard II of Mississippi, both of whom held an unsavory reputation as the most corrupt members of Congress. Serving both with indictments by the time of the midterms, their trials would be sensational affairs revealing the depths of corruption that remained in American politics. Young’s trial would implicate him in a labor racketeering scheme wherein local Pennsylvanian businesses were extorted by labor unions on threat of a strike, while Howard’s would be possibly even more dramatic when it was revealed that he and his associates openly auctioned government appointments in the state of Mississippi. Both were convicted on multiple charges of fraud, corruption, and conspiracy in serious blows to the political machines in their respective states. Young’s trial would furthermore lead to new inquiries into the Teamsters Union that he was closely tied with, prompting a cooperative investigation with Governor Charles Edward Merriam of Illinois striking at the heart of the union’s activities in Chicago. At the end of another well-publicized trial, union president Cornelius Shea would be convicted of several counts of conspiracy, all but toppling his powerful machine in the city. Cornelius Shea, the corrupt Teamster's President at the center of a powerful Social Democratic machine stretching across the Midwest. With the president having acquired new credibility through the prosecutions and his opposition coming to accept him as President after his impeachment acquittal, progress was made on his initiatives to set up a slew of commissions to study and tackle issues of corruption, government waste, and many other broad reform topics (at times ridiculed as excessive by his opponents). Among these were a Commission on Graft, Commission on the Budget, Commission on Prison Reform, Commission on Municipalization, Commission on Taxation, Commission on Scientific Progress, Commission on Alternative Educational Methods, Commission on Labor Negotiations, and a Commission on Social Hygiene with several of the members of his New York Nine appointed as their leaders. Much fruit was borne of these commissions on the federal level, such as reorganizations of several cabinet departments and slashing of redundant positions, a revision of government accounting practices, standardization of the government budgeting process, and prosecution of a number of corruption schemes involving federal contractors. On the state level, new prison and school practices were adopted across much of the country, several state eugenics laws were passed designed to reduce proclaimed incidences of sexual deviancy (such as homosexual activities) and mental disability, and at a local level the municipalization movement witnessed unprecedented progress in cities across the United States. Judicial Appointments and Decisions In 1922, Associate Justice Edgar M. Cullen passed away, much to the sorrow of his fellow members on the bench as he was among the most highly respected justices on the Court even despite his much more conservative judicial philosophy. With a Senate largely skeptical of President Mitchel, he opted to appoint one of the least controversial members of the Federalist Reform Party to succeed Cullen: New York Judge Learned Hand. Hand’s maverick record strongly in support of civil liberties earned the respect of wide swathes of the Senate and ensured a smooth confirmation process. In 1923, two of President Peabody’s appointees unexpectedly died just months apart from each other: Justices Granville Pearl Aikman and Martin Augustine Knapp. Due to Congress being wrapped up in the fallout of the Battle of Beacon Street and Mitchel’s impeachment trial, both seats went unfilled for much time. After his acquittal, Mitchel was finally able to appoint New York Judge Samuel Seabury, an associate of his from his days in municipal politics, and Colorado Judge Ben B. Lindsey, who had managed to politically thrive even in a highly Social Democratic state. Learned Hand, the first of three Supreme Court Justices appointed by President Mitchel during his term. Thanks to President Work’s hand in appointing several members of the Supreme Court, the institution had largely faded to the background offering little challenge to the initiatives of Congress and adopted a legal view broadly in favor of new laws and regulations. However, with the passage of the Dunn Amendments to the Constitution, a number of landmark cases made their way to the Supreme Court to interpret the new amendments to be resolved by the time of Mitchel’s presidency. In a series of cases related to the 24th amendment right to strike, the Supreme Court clarified several limits to the right to strike that ensured the continued criminalization of labor racketeering, provided for governments to be able to regulate acts of violence and intimidation during striking, and more controversially upheld limitations on the right to strike when in violation of a contract. Most shockingly, in American Federation of Labor vs. the United States, the Supreme Court ruled that the compulsory arbitration system in place since the U’Ren presidency was now an unconstitutional infringement on the right to strike. Two landmark decisions also interpreted the 26th amendment right to privacy in a more conservative direction. In Sanger vs. Morgan, the Supreme Court upheld the conviction of birth control activist Margaret Sanger for disseminating information on contraceptives through the United States Postal Service, arguing that information about contraceptives represented a disturbance to the public order that Congress could regulate. A similar ruling was passed down in Gerber vs. Lueder, upholding the conviction of gay rights activist Henry Gerber for dissemination of homosexual material via the postal service. Both rulings would serve to reinforce the constitutionality of the Comstock Laws regulating the use of the postal service on a moral basis. Margaret Sanger, a birth control activist achieving increasing prominence for her challenge of the status quo surrounding contraception. Other Legislative Activities Very little significant legislation was passed in Mitchel’s first two years due to the conflict between the President and Congress, aside from a new Apportionment Act significantly altering the makeup of the House to include a largely expanded membership and modifications to electoral laws to address scenarios in which a party might achieve an “overhang” seat in excess of its proportional vote. However, after President Mitchel’s acquittal during his impeachment trial, his opponents in Congress finally came to accept that he was here to stay and opted to work with him in a very limited way to progress less controversial issues. The most significant of these would be the Revenue Act of 1924, which significantly altered the taxation scheme in the nation by raising tariffs to an average of 37%, increasing the top income tax bracket to 32% on incomes over $100,000, and increasing the top estate tax rate to 32%. Signed by President Mitchel despite reservations on aspects of the tariff policy, the Revenue Act has been credited with significantly closing the historically high federal deficit. Also notable was the passage of the National Park Service Organic Act, creating a federal service under the Department of the Interior charged with the preservation of natural areas. Immigration had for some time become a non-issue as foreign immigrants opted to avoid the unstable United States during the years of the Civil War and the dictatorship and instead migrated to prosperous South American countries such as Argentina. However, a steadily increasing flow of immigrants since the fall of the dictatorship had reignited the debate in the country, and allowed the Federalist Reform Party to achieve a small victory on immigration in alliance with the Social Democratic Party, passing the Immigration Act of 1924, which set the strictest limits yet passed on the number of immigrants allowed into the country, although the Social Democrats and Solidarites who signed onto the act prevented the addition of quotas based on national origin or bans on immigration based on political ideology. William Edward Colby, inaugural head of the National Park Service Under pressure from the lobbying of the influential Sierra Club and preservationists within his party, Mitchel appointed California naturalist William Edward Colby as the first head of the National Park Service. Colby has been credited with significantly expanding federally preserved lands and successfully lobbying for an end to several damming and forestry operations he deemed damaging to the preservation of the natural environment. Another significant shift in leadership came about in the military: Commanding General John J. Pershing retired at the mandatory age of 64 in 1924. To acknowledge his services to restore American democracy, Pershing was awarded with a fourth star just prior to his retirement, an honor that had thus far only been officially granted to George Washington. Although many expected military reform legislation by the time of his retirement, persistent differences between the priorities of the three parties led to the maintenance of the status quo and an appointment of Peyton C. March to the position of Lieutenant General and Commanding General. Lastly, Congress easily passed a new amendment to the Constitution clarifying the procedures in case of death of the President-elect and creating a process for the appointment of a new Vice President in the case of a vacancy. Former Commanding General John J. Pershing and his successor, now Lieutenant General Peyton C. March Foreign Affairs Having a much more keen interest in domestic affairs, President Mitchel largely left foreign affairs in the hands of Johnson-selected Secretary of State Medill McCormick. A critic of the Hague Treaty and the new international organizations created by it, McCormick was nonetheless bound by an internationalist Senate that would reject any attempts to formally pull out of the global financial and arbitration system. Thus, McCormick instead acted to ensure a more withdrawn and restrained approach to United States participation in the International Monetary Fund and International Association of American States, while subtly challenging the authority of the Permanent Court of International Justice. Perhaps his most notable effort would be an open declaration of support for a rebellion in Cuba and Puerto Rico that broke out in July of 1923 after lobbying from the revolutionaries, though he would be forced to back down from his strongly stated initial position due to a condemnation by the Spanish Empire and their British allies after being advised by military authorities that the United States military would not be able to weather a war against the two powers. Although he received several offers from the German Empire, Denmark, and other major powers to purchase the American Congo, President Mitchel opted to retain the Congo as an American territory (though making no moves towards statehood). Mitchel first appointed controversial former Surgeon General Rupert Blue to be Governor-General of the territory, but after this was soundly rejected by the Senate, he opted to appoint President of the University of California David Prescott Barrows to the position, who was reluctantly confirmed by a bare majority of the Senate. Governor-General David Prescott Barrows, the Mitchel appointee who has adopted a more paternalistic approach to governing the Congo. Inspired by the former Grant dictatorship, a European Integralist movement began to take hold in the defeated powers of the Great War during Mitchel’s term in office. Italy had been consumed in turmoil during a period known as the Biennio Rosso due to the economic ramifications of the war, compounded by a sense that Italy had not received its due during the negotiations of the Treaty of the Hague in a wound to its national pride. From this crucible emerged Benito Mussolini and the Integralisti, who promised a panacea to Italy’s woes with their openly anti-parliamentarian movement. Tacitly supported by American Ambassador to Italy David A. Reed, Mussolini conducted a March on Rome that installed himself as a dictator over the country. Despite his authoritarianism, Mussolini’s strides in restoring economic and political order in the country earned him the widespread respect of foreign leaders, including President Mitchel himself. Likewise in France, the anti-parliamentarian Action Francaise scored a major victory in the 1924 elections allowing them to form a minority government by exploiting divisions within their opposition. Benito Mussolini pictured during the March on Rome in 1922. Mussolini has been credited with the promotion of the Integralist ideology across Europe and much of the world. Meanwhile in the Ottoman Empire, the Liberty and Accord Party, which had overseen the liberalization of the Empire after Sultan Mehmed VI ousted the authoritarian Union and Progress Party, fell to an insurgent nationalist Renewal Party led by war hero Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. Even in distant Asia, Integralism began making inroads into the political mainstream. In India, where an enormous rebellion had nearly toppled British rule before the Labour Party of Arthur Henderson granted the subcontinent home rule, resistance continued in the form of many nationalist parties including the Hindu Mahasabha which has adopted an increasingly Integralist political platform. In China, the increasingly unstable Beiyang Government backed by the British and German Empires came under dire threat from the nationalist Kuomintang, a multifaceted party drawing influences from both its Russian Socialist-Revolutionaries as well as from American and European Integralism. However, the illness of its founder and leader Sun Yat-Sen has temporarily stalled plans for a final offensive against the Beiyang Government, fuelling speculation that the effort will instead be undertaken by Sun Yat-Sen’s protege Chiang Kai-Shek. Chiang Kai-Shek, the expect successor of Sun Yat-Sen, and a figure that many Chinese Nationalists hope might be capable of reunifying the nation. President Mitchel’s term also saw significant challenges to the system of international relations established in the Hague Treaty. The first major conflict emerged as a result of the contentious status of the Philippine archipelago, nominally a Spanish colony but under the effective occupation and administration of the Japanese Empire. Both governments agreed to arbitration of the issue by the Permanent Court of International Justice, with the Japanese hoping that the court would acknowledge the reality of the islands as a Japanese territory while the Spanish hoped that the court would rule to evict the Japanese from the island. Ultimately, the Court would reject Japanese claims of effective occupation as a basis for annexing the territory, infuriating the Japanese government to the point of issuing an official denunciation of the Court and accusing the present system of international relations of being constructed to ensure Anglo-American-German world hegemony. The second major conflict would emerge as a result of Mussolini’s ascension to power, as the Italian dictator took a belligerent approach to the assassination of an Italian general and occupied the disputed island of Corfu despite protests from the Greek government. Mussolini then openly refused to submit to international arbitration despite the petitions of the Greeks, bringing the two countries to the brink of war. Only a hastily crafted international agreement conceding to most Italian demands, much to the consternation of the Greek government, averted a violent escalation of the conflict. Both episodes have seriously shaken the legitimacy and authority of the Permanent Court of International Justice and inched the world closer to global conflict, reigniting discussion around the creation of a League of Nations that would guarantee the collective security of its members. Thus, under the influence of a group of internationalists in his inner circle, President Mitchel pressured Secretary of State Medill McCormick to resign near the end his term and replaced him with Raymond Fosdick, to the chagrin of much of his own party due to Fosdick’s outspoken internationalism. |
2021.12.02 13:50 textbooks6 Google Drive eTextbooks release thread (part-3)!+ Accepting requests every day
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•Almost all the books are in their latest editions and some of them are available in multiple editions too. •Books are delivered through Google-Drive link. •You can also send requests via reddit chat or by Telegram. •Also, upvote the post if you found it useful. Please find the list below:
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2021.10.15 03:12 Mavmaramis Tracy Hickman & Margaret Weiss, Dragonlance Adventures, TSR, 1987. Cover: Jeff Easley.
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2021.05.21 00:08 LoretiTV Manifest 3x10 "Compass Calibration" Episode Discussion
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2021.01.12 23:37 emwebss Law Deans Joint Statement on the 2020 Election and Events at the Capitol [157 Law School Deans]
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